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Buchholz, S.F. Merino, M.L. Pérez, R.J. Gelpi, A.M. Rancich" "autores" => array:5 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "B." "apellidos" => "Buchholz" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "S.F." "apellidos" => "Merino" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M.L." "apellidos" => "Pérez" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "R.J." "apellidos" => "Gelpi" ] 4 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "A.M." "apellidos" => "Rancich" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "arancich@fmed.uba.ar" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Institute of Cardiovascular Physiopathology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Prohibición de la litotomía y derivación a expertos en los juramentos médicos de la genealogía hipocrática" ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Hippocratic Oath is one of the first documents of medical ethics in the Western World. It comprises guidelines regarding how to behave with teachers, pupils, and patients. Nevertheless, the true original meaning of some of its commitments may never be fully comprehended. There have been different translations and interpretations of the oath throughout history, and scholars have proposed different hypotheses about the significance of its clauses, particularly in the last century.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1–3</span></a> One of the most controversial is the clause regarded as “the prohibition of lithotomy”. Authors have translated it differently: Miles, translating Emile Littré expresses “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I will not practice surgery for stone; I will leave this to people who do that</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Ludwig Edelstein expresses it as: “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I will not use the knife, not even on sufferers from stone, but will withdraw in favour of such men as they are engaged in this work</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Controversy lays, firstly, in the type of lithiasis involved, whether gallbladder, kidney or bladder stones.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Secondly, whether Greek physicians recommended staying away from all types of surgery, as Edelstein proposes, or only lithotomy or castration, as Nittis and Littré suggest.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3,4</span></a> Given the particularity of this technique and its description in the Hippocratic Oath, authors like Bloom consider urology as the first surgical subspecialty.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Many interpretations over the years were provided to explain what the commitment of not cutting for stone and the referral to experts in the Hippocratic Oath really meant. It is known that Hippocratic physicians performed surgical procedures.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Why then would there be a need to prohibit lithotomy?</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Vesical lithiasis is one of the oldest pathologies known. Since this was a health problem that generated great pain to those who suffered from it, it became the object of many violent treatments such as surgery, which carried a high mortality rate. Lithotomy is the oldest surgical technique known for a specific pathology.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Being that this commitment was particularly specific to a certain procedure, it became anachronical. The procedure suffered modifications through the centuries and with improvements to the technique. Therefore, it ceased causing numerous deaths and other complications.</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nowadays, some authors believe that the commitment of not cutting for stone and referral to experts could be interpreted as recognizing the physician's own limitations and seeking referrals to more skilled colleagues and specialists in certain pathologies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thus, it would be important to analyze this commitment in medical oaths with Hippocratic influence. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze how the commitments of not cutting for stone and referrals to experts were modified in medical oaths of Hippocratic stemma from different time periods. The intention of this study is not to provide a new translation or interpretation of the Hippocratic Oath. The Hippocratic Oath and its discussion by scholars is mentioned merely to introduce the topic to the reader and provide a theoretical framework for analyzing subsequent oaths.</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Methods</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nineteen oaths of Hippocratic stemma were studied when analyzing the prohibition of not cutting for stone and referring patients. The oaths were selected from different sources: original articles, anthologies, encyclopedias, or sent by authorities of medical schools.</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The relation to the Hippocratic Oath would be represented by the name of the oath when it includes the word “Hippocratic” or because their authors recognized having based their oaths on the Hippocratic Oath. They were selected according to their historical significance and representativity regarding time period, renowned medical schools, and importance and reliability of the sources. Those oaths not stating having been based on the Hippocratic Oath or not including the term “Hippocratic” in their names, were excluded. In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>, the names of the oaths and the time when they were written can be found (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The different texts were grouped according to the time period in which they were written: four medieval, two modern, and thirteen contemporary (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>).</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clause of the Hippocratic Oath was divided into two commitments “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">not to cut for stone</span>” and “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">to refer patients to experts</span>”. It was analyzed in every oath whether these compromises were kept or how they varied.</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">With the aim of pointing out these commitments, we examined when they were referenced in each oath. The goal of this task was to determine similarities and differences between themselves and with the Hippocratic Oath.</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Results</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">When the nineteen oaths were analyzed, it was found that four of them (one medieval, two modern, and one contemporary) express the clause: same or similar to the Hippocratic Oath keeping both commitments. They have a paragraph and wording structure similar to the Hippocratic Oath (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>). An example is The Text of the Covenant laid down by Hippocrates that expresses:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0005"><p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I will not operate on those who have stone in the bladder; rather I will leave it for those whose profession it is</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Hippocratic Oath, text of the Spanish Medical Colleges Organization, as it appears in the Code of Medical Deontology, is the only Contemporary oath that expresses both commitments and that mentions castration:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0010"><p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I will not castrate, not even (for carving) on the stone sufferers, I would rather leave this activity to its craftsmen</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Three Contemporary oaths mention not performing criminal or unnecessary operations (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>), for example: The Oath of Hippocrates – George Washington University affirms:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0015"><p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">(I) will give no drug and perform no operation for a criminal purpose, even if solicited, far less suggest it</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">And The Hippocratic Oath, John Hopkins (1994) asserts:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0020"><p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">(I will) perform no operation… without justifiable purpose… far less suggest it</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Four other Contemporary oaths refer to obtaining consultation from experts, recognizing one's own limitations in demanding cases for the benefit of their patients (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>). One of these oaths is The Solemn Oath of the Physicians of Russia that states:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0025"><p id="spar0065" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">[I swear] to obtain consultation in demanding cases from those who are more knowledgeable and skilled. When asked for consultation by others, I will acknowledge their merits and efforts</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Hipppocratic Oath, text of Louis Lasagna expresses:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0030"><p id="spar0070" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I will not be ashamed to say, “I know not”, nor I will fail to call in my colleague when the skills of another are needed for a patient's recovery</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Eight oaths (three Medieval and five Contemporary) do not mention anything regarding the prohibition of cutting for stone/making a referral to more skilled professionals or performing operations (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>).</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Summarizing, only four of the oaths analyzed kept both commitments of the Hippocratic Oath. Others prohibit performing criminal/unnecessary operations, or advise to seek consultation when needed. The rest do not mention any of the two commitments.</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Discussion</span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Hippocratic Oath</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The reason for the prohibition of cutting for stone and the referral to experts included in the Hippocratic Oath is controversial. Nittis thinks that the commitment in the Hippocratic Oath refers to castration. Given the anatomical misinformation existing in antiquity, introducing a catheter in the urethra could cut the thinnest part of the bladder or its neck, as well as producing necrosis of the testis by occlusion of the spermatic artery.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4,20</span></a> He also mentions that it would have been easier to extract the stones if external genitalia were removed. However, he points out that, “castration by total ablation”, the term he uses for emasculation, was not an indicated treatment for lithiasis. Castration was an undesirable complication of lithotomy; therefore, Hippocratic physicians did not perform this procedure for they considered it abominable.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Another interpretation is Edelstein's. In his translation, he separates internal medicine and surgery and interprets that Pythagorics, to whom he adjudicates the oath, prohibit any type of surgery. They considered surgery one step below diet and pharmacology, previously specified in the oath. Also, they could not perform surgeries because they were not allowed to touch blood.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Prioreschi does not agree with these ideas. He considers that it indicates the referral of patients with bladder stones to specialists as a last resource, because they had more experience and, therefore, there were fewer risks.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Miles does not agree that it refers to castration, because then, promoting referrals to other practitioners would have been pointless. Neither does he agree with Edelstein's interpretation that the commitment condemns all surgery and, particularly, lithotomy, because ancient Greek physicians performed dangerous surgical procedures. Miles believes that the passage was added during the Roman or early Christian era, when surgery became a separated specialty. He affirms that cutting for stone was not morally taboo, but risky and it would have been prudent to refer patients to surgeons.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Androutsos affirms that a reason to not perform lithotomy was to maintain their reputations, since that was extremely important for Hippocratic physicians. This surgery was responsible for several deaths; therefore, physicians who performed it would be prone to falling in disgrace.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Medical Oaths of Hippocratic stemma</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Medieval and Modern oaths expressing the commitments similarly to the Hippocratic Oath prohibit cutting for stone, but not necessarily every type of surgery. Hippocratic medicine was very influential during Medieval and Modern times. In Medieval times, the surgical procedure for removing bladder stones had not significantly changed from that of Celsus. By the time these oaths were written, although some advances in the operation for bladder stones took place, it was still dangerous and carried a high mortality rate, hence a reason why it could have been kept in the oaths. Also, according to Herr, the ban's greatest influence against surgery was during the Middle Ages.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Spanish Medical Colleges Organization might use the Hippocratic Oath as an introduction to the Code of Medical Deontology representing the tradition in medical professionalism. It is not specified from which text the translation of the Hippocratic Oath was made. The translation of the lithotomy prohibition is unusually noteworthy since none of the mainstream versions of the Hippocratic Oath in its entirety have used the word castration, except for Nittis in his specific study about this commitment.</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although three oaths do not make references to lithotomy, nor mention offering referrals to experts, they do mention surgery. As an example, the Oath of Hippocrates, George Washington University expresses: “[I will] <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">perform no operation for a criminal purpose</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> They seem to show traces of being influenced by the Montpellier Doctorate Oath (1181) that affirms: “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I will not forward crime</span>”<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> and hence their reference to those actions. It is a possibility that these Contemporary versions of the Hippocratic Oath merged its most anachronical and debatable clauses in current times: “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">to not produce abortion, to not give poisonous drugs”</span> (interpreted by many as prohibiting euthanasia)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> and “<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">to not cut for stone</span>” into a single commitment that may comprise them all depending on the interpretation.</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">With regard to the oaths referencing obtaining consultation from experts, clearly, the main concern is the patient's well-being. In 1948 the World Medical Association created the International Code of Medical Ethics, alongside the Declaration of Geneva. Regarding physician's duties to the patients, the code affirms:<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dsq0035"><p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">“<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Whenever an examination or treatment is beyond the physician's capacity, he/she should consult with or refer to another physician who has the necessary ability</span>”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p></span></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The reason why four oaths mention this last aspect could be because medical knowledge has expanded and specialized widely in the last century, and collaboration among different specialties is promoted. Also, they were written after the rise of bioethics; therefore, they could have taken this code into consideration, since it is a trending topic in contemporary ethics. However, it is striking that although all of them mention seeking consultation, none expresses the referral of patients.</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is noteworthy that neither the original 1948 version of the Declaration of Geneva nor its modifications<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> include a commitment in this regard, not taking into consideration the International Code of Medical Ethics.</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Oath of Hippocrates, modified Geneva Version, University of California, San Diego, and many other American oaths, as well as the Hippocratic Oath, Faculty of Zaragoza, take most of the commitments directly from the Geneva Declaration with minimum modifications. Therefore, these oaths are subject to the same criticism as the original Declaration.</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Three Medieval oaths do not include any commitment regarding surgery, lithotomy, or referral of patients. A reason for their absence in the oath according to Hippocrates in So Far as a Christian May Swear It<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> may be that this text suffered several modifications due to the different manuscripts found. The Hippocratic Oath used to formulate this oath may have been previous to the addition of the prohibition of cutting for stone and referral to experts.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3,6</span></a> As far as the Oath of Schola Medica Salernitana (doctorate)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> is concerned, the full text has never been found. This fact could determine its absence. As for the Hebrew Paraphrase of the Hippocratic Oath, it is adjudicated to a medical student, and it is believed to be transcripted as notes in a class. Therefore, the commitment could have been eliminated or not registered.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> The Hippocratic Oath – Autonomous University of Madrid – uses the original version of the Hippocratic Oath almost entirely, except for the prohibition of cutting for stone and referral to patients.</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Possible limitations of this study are the small number of oaths utilized. Also, there might be medical oaths of Hippocratic stemma but not stated by the authors or not mentioned in the title. Therefore, due to this fact they were excluded, making the sample less representative. Also, there could be oaths mentioning the term “Hippocratic” in their name out of tradition but not necessarily recognizing its influence.</p></span></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Conclusion</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Summarizing, the commitment of the Hippocratic Oath of not cutting for stone and referral to experts has been modified in contemporary Hippocratic Oaths. Lithotomy is no longer prohibited to physicians. The original commitment seems to have been split into two tendencies: those that mention obtaining consultation from experts (but not to refer patients) and those that refer to not performing criminal operations. Due to the bioethics movement in the second half of the 20th century, referring patients that exceed the physician's limitations to more skilled colleagues constitutes an ethical obligation. Thus, it should be a commitment present in every Contemporary oath.</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:12 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres762910" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Objective" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Methods" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec764386" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres762909" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Objetivo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Métodos" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusión" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec764385" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Methods" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 7 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Discussion" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Hippocratic Oath" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Medical Oaths of Hippocratic stemma" ] ] ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xack253805" "titulo" => "Acknowledgment" ] 11 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2015-11-04" "fechaAceptado" => "2015-12-18" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec764386" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Lithotomy" 1 => "Hippocratic Oath" 2 => "Medical oaths" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec764385" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Litotomía" 1 => "Juramento Hipocrático" 2 => "Juramentos médicos" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Objective</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The aim is to analyze how the Hippocratic Oath's commitments of not cutting for stone and referral to experts was modified in medical oaths of Hippocratic stemma from different time periods.</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Methods</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Nineteen oaths of Hippocratic stemma were studied: 4 Medieval, 2 Modern, and 13 Contemporary. They were selected according to: name of the oath when it includes the word “Hippocratic” or because their authors recognized having based their oaths on the Hippocratic Oath. Their historical significance and representativity regarding time period, renowned medical schools, and importance and reliability of the sources was also taken into consideration.</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Four oaths prohibit cutting for stone (one Medieval, two Modern, one Contemporary); 4 oaths mention seeking consultation about patients (all Contemporary); 3 mention not performing criminal operations (all Contemporary); 8 do not mention these commitments (3 Medieval, 5 Contemporary).</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusion</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The commitment of the Hippocratic Oath of not cutting for stone and referral to experts has been modified mainly in Contemporary oaths. The original commitment seems to have been split into 2 tendencies: those that mention obtaining consultation, and those that refer to not performing criminal operations. Due to the bioethics movement in the second half of the 20th century, referring patients that exceed the physician's limitations to more skilled colleagues constitutes an ethical obligation. Thus, it should be a commitment present in every Contemporary oath.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Objective" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Methods" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] ] ] "es" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Objetivo</span><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Analizar cómo el compromiso del juramento hipocrático de no usar el cuchillo en quienes tienen cálculos y derivar a estos pacientes a expertos fue modificado en juramentos médicos de la genealogía (stemma) hipocrática de diferentes épocas.</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Métodos</span><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Diecinueve juramentos de stemma hipocrática fueron estudiados: 4 medievales, 2 modernos y 13 contemporáneos. Los juramentos fueron seleccionados de acuerdo con el nombre de los mismos cuando incluían el término «hipocrático» o porque sus autores reconocieron haberse basado en el Juramento Hipocrático. También se tuvo en cuenta la significación y representatividad en relación con el período histórico, escuelas médicas de renombre, importancia y confiablidad de las fuentes.</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Cuatro juramentos prohíben operar el cálculo (uno medieval, dos modernos, uno contemporáneo); 4 juramentos mencionan buscar consejo en relación con pacientes (contemporáneos), 3 hacen referencia a no realizar operaciones criminales (contemporáneos); 8 no hacen mención a estos compromisos (3 medievales, 5 contemporáneos).</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusión</span><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El compromiso del juramento hipocrático de no usar el cuchillo en quienes tienen cálculos y derivarlos a expertos ha sido modificado principalmente en los juramentos contemporáneos. La prohibición original parece haberse dividido en 2 tendencias: aquellos juramentos que mencionan el pedir consejo, y aquellos que refieren no realizar operaciones criminales. Debido al movimiento bioético de la segunda mitad del siglo <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">xx</span>, derivar a colegas más idóneos a aquellos pacientes que exceden las limitaciones del médico constituye una obligación ética. Por lo tanto, es un compromiso que debería estar presente en todos los juramentos contemporáneos.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Objetivo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Métodos" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusión" ] ] ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as: Buchholz B, Merino SF, Pérez ML, Gelpi RJ, Rancich AM. Prohibición de la litotomía y derivación a expertos en los juramentos médicos de la genealogía hipocrática. Actas Urol Esp. 2016;40:640–645.</p>" ] ] "multimedia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at1" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Commitments \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Hippocratic Medical Oaths \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Oaths expressing both commitments similarly to the Hippocratic Oath \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">• Oath of the Covenant laid down by Hippocrates (C.13th)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a><br>• Giovanni Lombardi's translation of the Hippocratic Oath (1559)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a><br>• Oath of Hippocrates, text of John Read (1588)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a><br>• Hippocratic Oath, text of the Spanish Medical Colleges Organization<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Oaths referring to not perform criminal or unnecessary operations \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">• The revised Oath of Hippocrates, University of Toronto (1993)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a><br>• The Oath of Hippocrates, George Washington University (1993)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a><br>• The Hippocratic Oath- School of Medicine, John Hopkins University (1994)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Oaths referring to seek consultation \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">• The Hippocratic oath, text of Louis Lasagna (1964)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a><br>• Oath of the Physicians of Russia (1992)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a><br>• A Physician's Oath, Mayo Clinic (1993)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a><br>• A.D 1995 Restatement of the Oath of Hippocrates (1995)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Oaths that express nothing about it \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">• Oath according to Hippocrates in So Far as a Christian May Swear It (C.11th)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a><br>• Oath of Schola Medica Salernitana (doctorate) (C.12th/13th)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a><br>• Hebrew Paraphrase of the Hippocratic Oath (1461)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a><br>• Declaration of Geneva (1948,1968, 1983, 1994, 2006)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a><br>• Oath of Hippocrates: modified Geneva Version, University of California, San Diego (1993)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a><br>• Oath of Hippocrates, University of Ottawa (1993)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a><br>• Hippocratic Oath, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza (2013)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a><br>• Hippocratic Oath – Autonomous University of Madrid (2013)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab1260340.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0080" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">‘Lithotomy's prohibition’ in Medical Oaths.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:24 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0125" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Medical ethics in antiquity" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => "P. 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Original article
Lithotomy's prohibition and referral to experts in medical oaths of hippocratic stemma
Prohibición de la litotomía y derivación a expertos en los juramentos médicos de la genealogía hipocrática
B. Buchholz, S.F. Merino, M.L. Pérez, R.J. Gelpi, A.M. Rancich
Corresponding author
Institute of Cardiovascular Physiopathology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina