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How are ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ defined in publications regarding asthma and related diseases?
A. Lima,
Corresponding author
alim040@aucklanduni.ac.nz

Corresponding author.
, M.I. Ashera, E. Ellwooda, P. Ellwooda, D.J. Exeterb
a Department of Paediatrics: Child and Youth Health, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
b Epidemiology & Biostatistics, School of Population Health, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Global patterns in the prevalence of asthma&#44; rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema symptoms have been identified by The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood &#40;ISAAC&#41; and pointed to environmental factors as potentially causative&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;4</span></a> The increasing burden of these diseases around the world has emphasised the importance of epidemiological studies of specific environmental factors&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> with urbanisation being of particular interest&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Distinct urban&#8211;rural differences have been observed in many locations&#44; especially in several African studies where lower levels of asthma were found in rural than urban areas&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#8211;9</span></a> Increases in prevalence of asthma symptoms over time have been associated with rural&#8211;urban transitions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> and there is evidence to demonstrate that increasing asthma trends may have reached a plateau in most urbanised English language and Western European countries&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> These trends suggest that global changes in the prevalence of asthma and related diseases&#44; which occur with changes in environmental conditions&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5&#44;11&#44;12</span></a> may be affected by specific aspects of urbanisation&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; there is currently no standard definition of urbanisation and studies use a wide range of approaches to make the distinction between &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; locations&#46; The absence of a universal method of defining &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; creates difficulties in pursuing aetiology and comparing studies&#46; Dichotomised distinctions within countries will not reflect levels of urbanisation within or between countries which comprise multiple continuous variables<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14</span></a> and are unlikely to reflect the overall contributions of urban and rural residence as aetiological factors for the prevalence of asthma and related diseases&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Definitions for &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; which are clearer and more precise would allow for comparisons between studies and more meaningful investigations into the effect of urban and rural residence on asthma and related diseases&#46; This review investigates definitions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; used in publications about asthma and related diseases&#44; including consideration of country income level for studies where specific definitions were found&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Methods</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A literature search was conducted in November and December 2011 across a variety of databases including PubMed&#44; Medline &#40;OvidSP&#41;&#44; ScienceDirect&#44; Scopus and Embase&#46; Google Scholar was used for specific article searches and reference lists of articles found were also searched&#46; The major search terms used were &#8216;asthma&#8217;&#44; &#8216;urban&#8217;&#44; &#8216;rural&#8217;&#44; &#8216;urbanisation&#8217; and &#8216;urbanization&#8217;&#46; Minor search terms included &#8216;definition&#8217;&#44; &#8216;rhinoconjunctivitis&#8217;&#44; &#8216;eczema&#8217;&#44; &#8216;bronchospasm&#8217; and &#8216;epidemiology&#8217;&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8216;Asthma and related diseases&#8217; included asthma&#44; exercise induced bronchospasm&#44; reversible airway obstruction&#44; bronchial hyperreactivity&#44; rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema &#40;in some studies asthma was termed an atopic disease&#41;&#46; The main focus in this study however&#44; was on the prevalence of asthma&#46; The search was limited to the English language while not limited to studies on children to allow a wider search range&#46; There was also no specified time frame for article publication dates&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Articles were included if the main topic of interest included asthma and related diseases and identified whether the location was &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217;&#46; Publications were categorised into four types&#58; a specific definition of &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217;&#59; a non-specific definition&#59; a description but no definition&#59; the terms &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; were used but with no description or definition&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Results</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The literature search found 73 articles which met the criteria described in &#8220;Methods&#8221; section&#46; Descriptions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; classifications used in the studies were found in &#8220;Methods&#8221; section in most of the articles&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Of these 73 articles&#44; 19 articles &#40;26&#37;&#41; distinguished between &#8216;urban&#8217; and&#47;or &#8216;rural&#8217; using a specific definition as described in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#46; Most of these 19 articles used population-based definitions such as population density<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> or population based Urban Influence Codes &#40;UIC&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> particularly the studies from high income countries&#59; two articles from low and lower middle income countries used a wider range of specific factors&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;18</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The other 54 &#40;74&#37;&#41; articles &#40;citations are available on request&#41; used less specific definitions&#46; Non-specific or administrative definitions were used in nine articles &#40;12&#37;&#41;&#44; for example&#44; &#8220;large cities with urban lifestyle&#8221; vs&#46; &#8220;mostly rural lifestyle&#8221;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> or used a metropolitan centre as &#8216;urban&#8217; and locations outside of the centre being &#8216;rural&#8217;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> or used &#8220;doctor estimate of urban&#47;rural ratio of clientele&#8221;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a></p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 23 articles &#40;32&#37;&#41;&#44; a location was stated to be &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217; and then differences between the urban and rural locations were described with little or no indication of whether the description was used to make this distinction&#46; For example&#44; in one study&#44; The Gambia is described as &#8216;urban&#8217; but it is not clear whether the following descriptions were used to make the urban&#8211;rural distinction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> &#8220;Banjul&#44; the capital on an island in the River mouth&#44; is the oldest urban settlement in The Gambia&#44; and has a population of approximately 42&#44;000&#46; The Gambia has no major industry&#46; Many of the working population in Banjul are involved in small industry&#44; trade crafts or are employed in the civil service&#46;&#8221;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Distinctions between &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; without a stated definition and no further description were made in 22 articles &#40;30&#37;&#41;&#46; For example&#44; &#8220;The population investigated comprised all 17 year old boys in one seaside urban area of Israel&#8221;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Discussion</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this investigation of definitions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; in articles about asthma and related diseases substantial variations were found&#46; Most articles &#40;74&#37;&#41; did not give specific definitions&#46; Many articles simply stated whether a location was &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217; before describing but not defining differences between locations&#46; In others there was little or no description of how &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217; was defined&#44; such as using an administrative definition&#44; making the assumption that it was intuitively obvious that a city centre was &#8216;urban&#8217; and locations outside of this were considered &#8216;rural&#8217;&#46; For approximately one-third of the studies&#44; it was unclear how the distinction between &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; was made at all&#46; In the 26&#37; of articles where specific definitions were used&#44; population based classifications using an urban centre and then subsequently labelling surrounding areas as rural were the most common definitions&#44; perhaps because these are relatively simple methods for defining &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; using widely available national census data&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Very few studies used a wider range of specific indicators to define &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; including two studies on childhood asthma&#44; one in Maputo&#44; Mozambique<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> and the other in Ecuador&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> The Ecuador study included factors such as transport access&#44; electrical grid connection and parental education grouped under the headings of infrastructure&#44; socioeconomic and lifestyle factors as components of urbanisation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> The Maputo study was less explicit with regard to the definition used&#44; citing &#8220;administrative and physical factors such as&#58; type of building&#44; electricity&#44; water supply and the distance from the town centre&#46;&#8221;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> These studies illustrate the complexities and multi-faceted aspects of urbanisation&#44; with many variations in the trends found in disease prevalence&#46; The Maputo study demonstrated urban&#8211;rural differences&#44; but there were varied results between asthma&#44; rhinitis and eczema with unclear urban&#8211;rural trends with all the diseases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> The Ecuador study illustrated the complexity of urbanisation with mixed results among the components used in the definition&#59; strong associations were seen between asthma prevalence and socioeconomic and lifestyle indices but weak association with urban infrastructure index&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The literature search was focussed to answer the study question&#46; Restricting the search field purely using the database search limits was not adequate as evidence of the use of an urban&#8211;rural distinction could only be found through evaluation of the text&#46; Although a number of articles that defined &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; to some extent were found in the review&#44; they are unlikely to represent all studies which have made distinctions between &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; with regard to asthma and related diseases&#46; However&#44; this study does give a representative view of how &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; have been defined in the literature on urban&#47;rural residence in the context of asthma in particular&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The present review highlights a need for development in how the definition of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; is approached and described in publications&#46; The fact that only 26&#37; of the articles used a specific definition demonstrates the lack of emphasis on using clear and explicit definitions which are adequate for comparisons between studies&#46; Clear specific definitions would allow researchers to determine which facets of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; are being considered in a particular study and would enable more opportunities for valid comparisons between locations&#46; Although a standardised&#44; universal method of defining &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; might be a potential game changer in the investigation of the effect of urbanisation&#44; such a definition may never arise due to the enormous number of factors which occur with urbanisation and these may differ from one location to another&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Summarised country level data are readily available from world-wide sources such as the World Bank and WHO&#59; however&#44; more detailed data from within countries would be required for such standardised definitions&#44; as this is not readily available on a global scale&#46; Although high income countries might be expected to have greater availability of such data&#44; this was not reflected in studies that had specific definitions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217;&#59; the high income countries mostly used population based definitions&#46; This may be an indication that such data are not available or are available but are not readily accessed or considered to be of importance&#46; There is certainly potential for a deviation from the use of the urban&#8211;rural dichotomy towards using a continuum of urbanisation&#46; This was evident in the Ecuador study where they referred to &#8220;measures of urbanisation&#8221;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> rather than categorising locations as &#8216;urban&#8217;&#44; &#8216;suburban&#8217; and &#8216;subrural&#8217; as was done in Maputo&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Two areas with the same population density may vary greatly in other environmental exposures which may be potentially influential processes of urbanisation such as parental education&#44; access to road transport&#44; truck traffic exposure&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> access to electricity&#44; construction of housing&#44; water supply&#44; method of cooking&#44; diet&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> and exposure to farm animals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;26&#44;27</span></a> Measurement of these might better inform research and policy&#46; Certain aspects of urbanisation can be tailored to the study in question or there could be further development of an urbanisation index similar to what was done in the Ecuador study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Conclusion</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The effect of urban and rural residence has been a focus of research in asthma and related diseases but the definitions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; are commonly broad or non-specific&#46; At this time there is no single accepted definition which encompasses all the facets of urban and rural residence in their role in asthma and related diseases and it may be unrealistic to ever expect one&#46; We recommend that future studies define urban and rural specifically and where possible use indicators which might be measurable in other locations so that comparisons of data might help elucidate the effect of the environment on asthma and related diseases and thus be a step towards alleviating the global burden of these diseases&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Ethical disclosures</span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Protection of human and animal subjects</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this investigation&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Confidentiality of data</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no patient data appear in this article&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Right to privacy and informed consent</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no patient data appear in this article&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no actual or potential competing interests&#46;</p></span></span>"
    "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [
      "secciones" => array:11 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xres325673"
          "titulo" => array:5 [
            0 => "Abstract"
            1 => "Background"
            2 => "Methods"
            3 => "Results"
            4 => "Conclusions"
          ]
        ]
        1 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec307251"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
        ]
        2 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "Introduction"
        ]
        3 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0010"
          "titulo" => "Methods"
        ]
        4 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "Results"
        ]
        5 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Discussion"
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0025"
          "titulo" => "Conclusion"
        ]
        7 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0030"
          "titulo" => "Ethical disclosures"
          "secciones" => array:3 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0035"
              "titulo" => "Protection of human and animal subjects"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0040"
              "titulo" => "Confidentiality of data"
            ]
            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0045"
              "titulo" => "Right to privacy and informed consent"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0050"
          "titulo" => "Conflict of interest"
        ]
        9 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xack77068"
          "titulo" => "Acknowledgements"
        ]
        10 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "References"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2012-12-19"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2013-02-02"
    "PalabrasClave" => array:1 [
      "en" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec307251"
          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Asthma"
            1 => "Rural"
            2 => "Urban"
            3 => "Urbanisation"
            4 => "Urbanization"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "tieneResumen" => true
    "resumen" => array:1 [
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Background</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Global variations in the prevalence of asthma and related diseases have suggested that environmental factors are causative&#44; and that factors associated with urbanisation are of particular interest&#46; A range of definitions for &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; have been used in articles on asthma and related diseases&#44; making it difficult to assess their importance as aetiological factors&#46; This study sets out to examine such definitions used in the literature&#46;</p> <span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Methods</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Medical and social science databases were searched for articles that made distinctions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and&#47;or &#8216;rural&#8217; in the context of asthma and related diseases&#46;</p> <span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The search identified 73 articles and categorised four types of definitions&#46; A specific definition of urban or rural was used in 19 &#40;26&#37;&#41; articles&#46; Nine &#40;12&#37;&#41; articles used non-specific and&#47;or administrative definitions&#46; There were 23 &#40;32&#37;&#41; articles that described locations as &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217; but did not indicate if the description defined &#8216;urban&#8217; or &#8216;rural&#8217;&#46; Distinctions were made between urban and rural locations without a description or definition in 22 &#40;30&#37;&#41; articles&#46;</p> <span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">There is substantial variation in the definitions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; in articles regarding asthma and related diseases&#46; It would be advantageous to have clearer and more precise definitions of &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; which could facilitate aetiological research and also comparisons between locations&#44; especially in international studies&#46;</p>"
      ]
    ]
    "NotaPie" => array:1 [
      0 => array:2 [
        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">This work was completed by AL as a University of Auckland MBChB summer student at the Department of Paediatrics&#58; Child and Youth Health&#44; The University of Auckland&#44; Level 12&#44; Auckland City Hospital Support Building&#44; 2 Park Road&#44; Grafton&#44; Auckland&#44; New Zealand&#46;</p>"
      ]
    ]
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      0 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "tbl0005"
        "etiqueta" => "Table 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "tabla" => array:1 [
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Author<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#43;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>year of publication&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Study location&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Country income level&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Definition based on these specific indicators&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Mavale-Manuel et al&#46; &#40;2007&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Maputo&#44; Mozambique&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Low&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Physical and administrative factors e&#46;g&#46; type of building&#44; electricity&#44; water supply&#44; distance from town centre&#46; Inhabitant&#39;s density for population distribution&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Rodriguez et al&#46; &#40;2011&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ecuador&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Lower middle&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Multiple variables &#40;infrastructure&#44; socioeconomic and lifestyle factors&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">L&#226;m et al&#46; &#40;2011&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Bavi&#44; Vietnam&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Lower middle&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&#8220;Based on air pollution and geography&#8221; &#40;no further definition&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Guner et al&#46; &#40;2011&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Konya&#44; Turkey&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Upper middle&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&#8220;Socioeconomic and environmental conditions&#8221; &#40;no further definition&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sol&#233; et al&#46; &#40;2007&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Brazil&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Upper middle&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics definition &#40;no further definition&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Nilsson et al&#46; &#40;1999&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sweden&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">GIS system using home coordinates and house density coordinates&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ramos et al&#46; &#40;2006&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Pennsylvania&#44; USA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size and density&#44; miles of roads&#47;highways&#44; daily vehicle miles travelled&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Lin et al&#46; &#40;2001&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Taiwan&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population density and automobile&#47;motorcycle &#40;thus more severe air pollution&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Morrison et al&#46; &#40;2009&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">USA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population based Urban Influence Codes &#40;UIC&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Frazier et al&#46; &#40;2008&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">USA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population based Rural&#8211;Urban Continuum Codes&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Adler et al&#46; &#40;2005&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Wisconsin&#44; USA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population based metropolitan statistical area &#40;MSA&#41; codes to determine &#8216;rural&#8217;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ghosh et al&#46; &#40;2009&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Canada&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size and density&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Uijen et al&#46; &#40;2010&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Netherlands&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size and administrative definition&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Broms et al&#46; &#40;2009&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sweden&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population density as proxy for urbanisation&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Ciccone et al&#46; &#40;1998&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Italy&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size &#40;also use of &#8216;metropolitan&#8217; alongside &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217;&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Eriksson et al&#46; &#40;2010&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sweden&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size &#40;official population data from Statistics Sweden&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Shohat et al&#46; &#40;2000&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Israel&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">SLDREA &#40;1997&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Italy&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Galassi et al&#46; &#40;2006&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Italy&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Population size&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
              "imagenFichero" => array:1 [
                0 => "xTab474683.png"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Studies which distinguished between &#8216;urban&#8217; and &#8216;rural&#8217; using a specific definition &#40;arranged by country income level&#44; then by type of definition&#41;&#46;</p>"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "References"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "bibs0005"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:42 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0005"
              "etiqueta" => "1"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma&#44; allergic rhinoconjunctivitis&#44; and atopic eczema&#58; ISAAC"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "ISAAC"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Lancet"
                        "fecha" => "1998"
                        "volumen" => "351"
                        "paginaInicial" => "1225"
                        "paginaFinal" => "1232"
                        "link" => array:1 [
                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9643741"
                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0010"
              "etiqueta" => "2"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Global variations in prevalence of eczema symptoms in children from ISAAC Phase Three"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:5 [
                            0 => "J&#46;A&#46; Odhiambo"
                            1 => "H&#46;C&#46; Williams"
                            2 => "T&#46;O&#46; Clayton"
                            3 => "C&#46;F&#46; Robertson"
                            4 => "M&#46;I&#46; Asher"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1016/j.jaci.2009.06.030"
                      "Revista" => array:4 [
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                        "volumen" => "124"
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              ]
            ]
            2 => array:3 [
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Global variation in the prevalence and severity of asthma symptoms&#58; phase three of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood &#40;ISAAC&#41;"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "C&#46;K&#46;W&#46; Lai"
                            1 => "R&#46; Beasley"
                            2 => "J&#46; Crane"
                            3 => "S&#46; Foliaki"
                            4 => "J&#46; Shah"
                            5 => "S&#46; Weiland"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1136/thx.2008.106609"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
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                        "fecha" => "2009"
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            ]
            3 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0020"
              "etiqueta" => "4"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Global map of the prevalence of symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis in children&#58; the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood &#40;ISAAC&#41; Phase Three"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "N&#46; A&#239;t-Khaled"
                            1 => "N&#46; Pearce"
                            2 => "H&#46;R&#46; Anderson"
                            3 => "P&#46; Ellwood"
                            4 => "S&#46; Montefort"
                            5 => "J&#46; Shah"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1111/j.1398-9995.2008.01884.x"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Allergy"
                        "fecha" => "2009"
                        "volumen" => "64"
                        "paginaInicial" => "123"
                        "paginaFinal" => "148"
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                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19132975"
                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            4 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0025"
              "etiqueta" => "5"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Worldwide time trends in the prevalence of symptoms of asthma&#44; allergic rhinoconjunctivitis&#44; and eczema in childhood&#58; ISAAC Phases One and Three repeat multicountry cross-sectional surveys"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "M&#46;I&#46; Asher"
                            1 => "S&#46; Montefort"
                            2 => "B&#46; Bj&#246;rkst&#233;n"
                            3 => "C&#46;K&#46;W&#46; Lai"
                            4 => "D&#46;P&#46; Strachan"
                            5 => "S&#46;K&#46; Weiland"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69283-0"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Lancet"
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                        "volumen" => "368"
                        "paginaInicial" => "733"
                        "paginaFinal" => "743"
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                          0 => array:2 [
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                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
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                ]
              ]
            ]
            5 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0030"
              "etiqueta" => "6"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Urbanization and childhood asthma&#58; an African perspective"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "E&#46; Weinberg"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "J Allergy Clin Immunol"
                        "fecha" => "2000"
                        "volumen" => "105"
                        "paginaInicial" => "224"
                        "paginaFinal" => "231"
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                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10669840"
                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            6 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0035"
              "etiqueta" => "7"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Comparison of the prevalence of reversible airways obstruction in rural and urban Zimbabwean children"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:3 [
                            0 => "D&#46;J&#46; Keeley"
                            1 => "P&#46; Neill"
                            2 => "S&#46; Gallivan"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Thorax"
                        "fecha" => "1991"
                        "volumen" => "46"
                        "paginaInicial" => "549"
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                          0 => array:2 [
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                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
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              ]
            ]
            7 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0040"
              "etiqueta" => "8"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Urban&#8211;rural differences in questionnaire-derived markers of asthma in Kenyan school children"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "J&#46; Odhiambo"
                            1 => "L&#46; Ng&#8217;ang&#8217;a"
                            2 => "M&#46; Mungai"
                            3 => "C&#46; Gicheha"
                            4 => "J&#46; Nyamwaya"
                            5 => "F&#46; Karimi"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Eur Respir J"
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        "texto" => "<p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors acknowledge and thank the many funding bodies throughout the world that supported the individual ISAAC centres and collaborators and their meetings&#46; Many New Zealand funding bodies contributed support for the ISAAC International Data Centre &#40;IIDC&#41; during the periods of fieldwork and data compilation &#40;the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0005">Health Research Council of New Zealand</span>&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0010">Asthma and Respiratory Foundation of New Zealand</span>&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0015">Child Health Research Foundation</span>&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0020">Hawke&#39;s Bay Medical Research Foundation</span>&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0025">Waikato Medical Research Foundation</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0030">Glaxo Wellcome New Zealand</span>&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0035">New Zealand Lottery Board</span>&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0040">Auckland Medical Research Foundation</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0045">Astra Zeneca New Zealand</span>&#41;&#46; International funding was received from <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0050">Glaxo Wellcome International Medical Affairs</span> and the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0055">BUPA Foundation</span>&#46; Funding for the summer studentship was received from the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs0060">University of Auckland</span>&#46;</p>"
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Article information
ISSN: 03010546
Original language: English
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2023 May 18 9 27
2023 April 18 3 21
2023 March 12 6 18
2023 February 7 7 14
2023 January 12 11 23
2022 December 13 4 17
2022 November 20 14 34
2022 October 12 11 23
2022 September 14 13 27
2022 August 12 13 25
2022 July 9 10 19
2022 June 9 9 18
2022 May 26 12 38
2022 April 27 16 43
2022 March 13 15 28
2022 February 9 8 17
2022 January 13 5 18
2021 December 12 12 24
2021 November 9 14 23
2021 October 15 15 30
2021 September 13 13 26
2021 August 8 11 19
2021 July 10 12 22
2021 June 10 12 22
2021 May 16 12 28
2021 April 27 21 48
2021 March 14 14 28
2021 February 9 9 18
2021 January 6 8 14
2020 December 1 2 3
2020 September 0 3 3
2020 August 0 1 1
2020 July 0 1 1
2020 May 0 10 10
2020 February 0 4 4
2019 December 0 2 2
2019 November 0 2 2
2019 October 0 4 4
2019 September 0 3 3
2019 August 0 1 1
2019 July 0 4 4
2019 June 0 11 11
2019 May 0 18 18
2018 April 1 0 1
2018 February 8 1 9
2018 January 4 0 4
2017 December 5 0 5
2017 November 10 3 13
2017 October 13 0 13
2017 September 13 4 17
2017 August 16 0 16
2017 July 18 5 23
2017 June 11 7 18
2017 May 24 3 27
2017 April 18 2 20
2017 March 24 51 75
2017 February 7 4 11
2017 January 14 2 16
2016 December 14 6 20
2016 November 26 7 33
2016 October 39 7 46
2016 September 23 4 27
2016 August 18 3 21
2016 July 10 4 14
2016 June 22 13 35
2016 May 15 11 26
2016 April 16 11 27
2016 March 12 14 26
2016 February 20 10 30
2016 January 17 10 27
2015 December 12 10 22
2015 November 6 9 15
2015 October 16 8 24
2015 September 15 5 20
2015 August 9 6 15
2015 July 9 7 16
2015 June 11 3 14
2015 May 9 6 15
2015 April 14 9 23
2015 March 15 6 21
2015 February 2 1 3
2015 January 0 1 1
2014 November 1 0 1
2014 October 0 2 2
2014 September 0 1 1
2014 August 0 2 2
2014 July 0 2 2
2014 June 0 1 1
2014 April 0 4 4
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es en pt

¿Es usted profesional sanitario apto para prescribir o dispensar medicamentos?

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?

Você é um profissional de saúde habilitado a prescrever ou dispensar medicamentos