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Ocular involvement in sphenopalatin ganglion pulsed radiofrequency
Implicación ocular en el tratamiento con radiofrecuencia pulsada del ganglio esfenopalatino
a FEA Oftalmología, Coordinadora de la Unidad de Uveítis y Oculoplastia, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain
b FEA Anestesiología, Reanimación y Terapia del Dolor, Coordinador de la Unidad del Dolor, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain
c FEA Oftalmología, Coordinador de la Unidad de Uveítis y Oculoplastia, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain
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Temblador Barba, J.J. Lozano Sánchez, A.H. Rodríguez Suárez" "autores" => array:3 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "I." "apellidos" => "Temblador Barba" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "irenetemblador@gmail.com" ] "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "J.J." "apellidos" => "Lozano Sánchez" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "A.H." "apellidos" => "Rodríguez Suárez" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">c</span>" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "FEA Oftalmología, Coordinadora de la Unidad de Uveítis y Oculoplastia, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "FEA Anestesiología, Reanimación y Terapia del Dolor, Coordinador de la Unidad del Dolor, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "FEA Oftalmología, Coordinador de la Unidad de Uveítis y Oculoplastia, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corresponding author</span>." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Implicación ocular en el tratamiento con radiofrecuencia pulsada del ganglio esfenopalatino" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:8 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 339 "Ancho" => 755 "Tamanyo" => 46293 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at0015" "detalle" => "Figure " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The image shows good closure of the patient’s eyelids one week after RFP of the right sphenopalatine ganglion.</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is a chronic condition affecting the fifth cranial nerve that causes sporadic intense burning and sharp pain of variable duration that can be disabling for patients. Conventional treatments for this disorder include medical treatment with non-convulsant drugs such as carbamazepine. These agents have good initial pain relief, but success rates decrease dramatically in the long term. Cases refractory to medical management can be treated with minimally invasive procedures such as radiofrequency (RF) treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Pulsed RF (RFP) is a method of great interest as it is delivered in pulses, allowing adequate time for heat and energy dissipation, and this reduces damage to surrounding structures.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG) has been the basis for interventional treatment of headache and facial pain due to easy accessibility and has been instrumental in relieving symptoms of conditions such as atypical facial pain, trigeminal neuralgia, myofascial pain, post-herpetic neuralgia, post-traumatic headache, cluster headache and pain originating in the temporomandibular joint, as well as various head and neck cancers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> This ganglion is located in the pterygomaxillary fossa, which also comprises the vidian nerve, the palatine nerves, the petrosal nerves, the distal third of the internal maxillary artery and its terminal branches, as well as an abundant venous plexus.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Treatment with RFP in said ganglion is an important option to consider in refractory cases of TN. Complications of this technique are rare, but its importance in ophthalmology should be noted due to the anatomical relationships of this ganglion.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> As the second largest neural centre in the head, the SPG has sensory, motor and autonomic components.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Clinical case</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A 41-year-old woman was admitted to the Pain Unit of our hospital for treatment of TN refractory to medical treatment with carmabazepine, oxcarbazepine and phenytoin with years of evolution. Given the disabling course of the pathology, RFP of the trigeminal ganglion was first considered, but the result was not satisfactory as the improvement was transient and partial. Therefore, RFP of the SPG was proposed. RFP of the latter was performed through an X-ray-guided scopic approach. A venous line was cannulated and light sedation was administered. A puncture was performed under local anesthesia, and the entry point was located: below the inferior border of the zygomatic arch on the right side of the face, in the direction of the pterygomaxillary fossa. As the cannula was introduced, corrections were made with the scope. Once in the fossa, sensory stimulation was performed to check that the location was correct, next to the ganglion. Once these checks were made, RF was administered at 45 V (42°) for 120 s. The needle was a 10-cm, 22G-gauge needle with a 5-mm active tip (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0005">Figs. 1 and 2</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Once the procedure was performed, it was checked for complications, but approximately one hour after the intervention, the patient began to experience decreased blinking, lagophthalmos and lacrimation. Pupillary reflexes were preserved and visual acuity was not compromised. Extraocular motility was also unaffected, and the patient reported no diplopia or associated neurological symptoms. The patient was kept under observation, and after two hours the clinical signs had partially subsided: a milder lagophthalmos was observed and the symptoms of lacrimation and foreign body sensation were still present but less accentuated. The patient was discharged from the hospital and was prescribed intense ocular lubrication and nocturnal ocular occlusions.</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The patient was examined one week after the technique was performed in the Ophthalmology and Pain Unit together, and there was a great improvement in the neuralgic pain and the ophthalmological symptoms. In this first examination, only mild superficial inferior punctate keratitis was observed in both eyes, but the eyelid closure was adequate and the blinking frequency was normal (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>). Subsequently, the rest of the ophthalmological symptoms gradually subsided and disappeared within a few weeks. The pain symptoms continued to improve and no other ocular complications were observed, except for signs of mild ocular dryness, which continued to be controlled with lubrication.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Discussion</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To understand the possible etiology of the event described in the case, it is necessary to know previous concepts of the anatomy of the structures involved. The SPG has parasympathetic postganglionic neuron bodies. However, sympathetic and somatic sensory fibres from the maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve pass through the ganglion, without terminating or synapsing in it, which is why it is proposed as an option for treatment in refractory TN. Parasympathetic fibres originate in the superior salivatory nucleus, exiting via the facial nerve.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> The facial nerve is considered mixed because it has both motor axons (to control the musculature of facial expression) and sensory axons, which conduct sensory impulses from the external auditory canal via the sensory root to special or taste axons originating from the anterior two thirds of the tongue and parasympathetic efferent fibres innervate postganglionic neurons in the sphenopalatine and submandibular ganglia for secretomotor innervation of the lacrimal and salivary glands, with the exception of the parotid gland. Relating all these structures, a possible explanation for the finding in the present case is that the motor part of the facial nerve was damaged at some point along its course by the needle used to apply the RFP, or that this nerve presented in the patient some different anatomical variant that was related to the SPG.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Typically, complications of the sphenopalatine ganglion RF technique are mainly associated with needle insertion and may include infection, epistaxis (occurring in 10–20% of cases), injury to the maxillary artery and nerve, greater and lesser petrous nerves, and hemodynamic instability. Occasionally, hypoesthesia and/or dysesthesia of the upper teeth, hard palate or pharynx may result, as well as decreased lacrimation or nasal mucus production.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Other studies have reported non-specific sensory disturbances, swelling and edema, generalised pain, trismus, headaches or dry eye.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> If ocular complications occur, they are usually transient and usually resolve spontaneously.</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In our case, the symptomatology pointed to a possible transient facial paralysis, a finding not described in the side effects in the scientific literature. Since the symptoms were not long-lasting and subsided spontaneously, it is reasonable to assume that the possible damage to the facial nerve was mild, as otherwise the signs would have persisted for a longer period of time. As the patient subsequently presented symptoms of dry eyes in both eyes, although this could be partly due to the technique used, we think it was more likely to be due to the TN than to a side effect of the procedure, as these symptoms were previously recorded in the history, although they were milder. The tearing could be due either to paralysis due to lack of blinking or to dry eyes, but it was not a cause for concern as it gradually subsided as the treatment with ocular lubrication was applied. Still, despite the potential complications that may arise from this procedure, the SPG technique has a simple percutaneous approach and is safe, effective and repeatable as well as providing sustained pain relief in patients with TN or atypical facial pain who have failed previous medical interventions,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> and X-ray or CT-guided RF can be performed.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9,10</span></a> Exclusion criteria for its performance would include severe coagulation disorders, puncture site infection or septic conditions, among others.</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In general, the SPG is a promising target for treatment by blockade, RF ablation and neurostimulation. At the ophthalmological level, it is important to know the techniques that cover the approach to this ganglion to treat pathologies at the neuraxial level and its anatomical relationships due to the possible complications that could arise from these techniques. Regardless, it would be interesting to publish more controlled studies covering a larger population in order to guarantee their repeatability.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p></span><span id="sec2010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect2030">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par2020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">No conflicts of interest were declared by the authors.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:9 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres1955838" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1683396" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres1955839" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1683395" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Clinical case" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Discussion" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec2010" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 8 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2022-12-16" "fechaAceptado" => "2023-05-26" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1683396" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Pulsed radiofrequency" 1 => "Sphenopalatine ganglion" 2 => "Refractory trigeminal neuralgia" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1683395" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Radiofrecuencia pulsada" 1 => "Ganglio esfenopalatino" 2 => "Neuralgia del trigémino refractaria" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Pulsed radiofrequency (PRF) treatment of the sphenopalatine ganglion is an important interventional treatment in refractory cases of trigeminal neuralgia (TN) or atypical facial pain, given the easy access to its location. Despite the fact that complications from this technique are rare and it is a fairly safe procedure, ophthalmologists should know about it due to the anatomical relations of this ganglion.</p></span>" ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El tratamiento con radiofrecuencia pulsada (RFP) del ganglio esfenopalatino (GEFP) es una opción importante a tener en cuenta respecto al tratamiento intervencionista en casos refractarios de neuralgia del trigémino (NT) o dolores faciales atípicos, dado el fácil acceso a su localización. A pesar de que las complicaciones de esta técnica son raras y es un procedimiento bastante seguro, a nivel oftalmológico cabe reseñar su importancia por la relaciones anatómicas de este ganglio.</p></span>" ] ] "multimedia" => array:3 [ 0 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 744 "Ancho" => 755 "Tamanyo" => 71650 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at0005" "detalle" => "Figure " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">RFP of the right sphenopalatine lymph node with a 10 cm needle, 22G gauge and 5 mm active tip.</p>" ] ] 1 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 840 "Ancho" => 755 "Tamanyo" => 89020 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at0010" "detalle" => "Figure " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">RFP of the right sphenopalatine lymph node with 10 cm needle, 22G gauge and 5 mm active tip.</p>" ] ] 2 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 339 "Ancho" => 755 "Tamanyo" => 46293 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at0015" "detalle" => "Figure " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The image shows good closure of the patient’s eyelids one week after RFP of the right sphenopalatine ganglion.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:10 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Pulsed radiofrequency V2 treatment and intranasal sphenopalatine ganglion block: a combination therapy for atypical trigeminal neuralgia" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => "M. 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