metricas
covid
Buscar en
Cirugía Española (English Edition)
Toda la web
Inicio Cirugía Española (English Edition) Unnecessary surgery
Journal Information
Vol. 101. Issue 12.
Pages 813-815 (December 2023)
Vol. 101. Issue 12.
Pages 813-815 (December 2023)
Editorial
Full text access
Unnecessary surgery
La cirugia innecesaria
Visits
37
Alberto R. Ferreresa,b,c
a Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
b Hospital de Clínicas “José de San Martín”, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
c Universidad de Washington, Seattle, USA
This item has received
Article information
Full Text
Bibliography
Download PDF
Statistics
Full Text

“It is simply unscientific to allege or believe that doctors do not, under existing circumstances, perform unnecessary operations and manufacture and prolong lucrative illnesses.”

GB Shaw

“The Doctor’s Dilemma: Preface on Doctors”, 1909

Editorial Sudamericana, Buenos Aires, 1956, p 10

The proliferation of surgical procedures with debatable outcomes without the full consent of patients, the growing number of legal proceedings for alleged malpractice based on weak surgical indications, and the rise in health care costs have brought to the foreground the implications and consequences of unnecessary surgery.

Although the topic seems to be current, in 1894, William Stokes, former President of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland, highlighted concepts of Ethics in Surgery regarding operations that were not very appropriate for the management of oncological pathologies and provided questionable results.1

In 1908, Ernest Groves, a British surgeon, promoted the registration of surgical interventions in order to know the number of procedures performed and their results.2 Meanwhile, in the USA, Wetherill stimulated hospital efficiency, the dissemination of Ethics, and the exclusion of the inept and incompetent from clinical practice.3 All of these concepts were summarized by Ernest Codman, who emphasized the importance of setting standards as well as the reporting of results.4 In 1922, Haggard published an editorial article titled “The Unnecessary Operation”.5 The threat posed by unnecessary surgery was also addressed by Paul Hawley, Executive Director of the American College of Surgeons, when he stated that, “the public would be shocked if it knew the amount of unnecessary surgery performed”.6 A very recent article in the New York Times has once again focused on this significant problem,7 and likewise another article published in Forbes magazine.8

For many, it is a poorly defined entity, but Leape and Pauly contributed to its conceptualization. Surgery that is useless and ineffective is considered unnecessary surgery. The subjective perspective of patients does not allow for its quantification or evaluation. An unnecessary surgery is one that either does not benefit the patient or provides such minimal benefits that are far outweighed by the costs in terms of risk, morbidity, disability and pain.9,10 Unnecessary surgery is not evaluated by its results or potential postoperative complications but must instead be analyzed from its evidence-based indication and after an informed decision by the patient, who gives consent.

The interest in this topic is based on the fact that it represents a break in the ethical principles of the patient-surgeon relationship, in which self-interest takes precedence over altruism. Bevan highlighted that the two most serious problems facing Surgery are unnecessary surgeries and procedures performed by incompetent surgeons.11 Unnecessary surgery is not evaluated based on results, as complications are inherent to any surgical procedure and considering that the global postoperative complication rate can reach 25%.12

Crile made a distinction between appropriate and inappropriate procedures, the latter being classified as: a) operations inappropriate for the disease; b) operations inappropriate for a given patient; and c) operations appropriate for the disease and the patient, but performed by a surgeon who has not been adequately trained.13 In 1974, McCarthy presented before the US Congress the results of the First Second Opinion Program, reporting 17.6% of indications for surgery had not been endorsed or confirmed.14 Extrapolating his findings to the entire US population, it could be estimated that there were, at that time, about 2.4 million unnecessary operations performed annually, resulting in an approximate cost of $3.9 billion and some 11,900 deaths. The Study on Surgical Services for the United States (SOSSUS) defined 6 categories of interventions, which a priori and with no prior analysis, could be considered unnecessary15:

  • a)

    Operations in which pathological tissues are not removed

  • b)

    Operations with a questionable surgical indication

  • c)

    Operations to relieve tolerable or non-disabling symptoms

  • d)

    Operations for asymptomatic or non-threatening disorders

  • e)

    Operations considered obsolete, discredited or outdated

  • f)

    Operations with little or no justification based on symptoms and/or complementary studies

This report clarifies that each category requires precise and rigorous evaluation of each case under study before judging the degree of need for the intervention.

The literature has shown evidence of this type of practice and has also demonstrated great variation in the rates of certain surgical procedures at the regional, national and international levels. For instance, several clinical trials have shown that spinal fusion surgery for lower back pain has not achieved optimal long-term results compared to less invasive therapies.16 Knee arthroscopy is a very common operation and does not always achieve the desired results,17 and the same holds true for arthroscopic partial meniscectomy. The Fidelity study, after comparing the results of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy versus placebo surgery, found no relevant benefits over 12 months of follow-up.18 Similar conclusions were reported by Marsh in Canada.19

Video-assisted colonoscopies performed in patients outside the recommended age range or at shorter intervals than indicated has been reported in 17%–25.7% of cases.20 The Ischemia study, with the support of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute of the USA, demonstrated that invasive treatment does not reduce 4-year mortality in coronary heart disease.21 Between 2007 and 2015, the proportion of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators that did not meet the Medicare National Coverage (MNC) criteria was 25.8%, which then dropped by more than 15% after the intervention of the US Department of Justice.22 Flum and Koepsell called attention to the incidence of negative appendectomies, defined as the non-incidental excision of a normal cecal appendix.23 The management of localized prostate cancer has also been subject to critical analysis, as noted in a study by the US Veterans Administration, with an unjustified increase in radical surgeries.24

The rates of use and the eventual overuse or over-indication of certain procedures should be a wake-up call for detailed analysis of the underlying circumstances. One example is the high variation in the performance of cesarean sections.25,26 The existence of cases with unnecessary surgery should stimulate the development of clinical consensus and evidence-based surgery in order to ultimately reduce useless surgeries to a minimum. Several reasons may justify performing unnecessary procedures, including uncertainty, social factors, responding to pressure from patients to undergo procedures with doubtful results, use and customs, which in part may explain the differences in usage rates and remuneration systems.27 Payment per service can also encourage this practice in the same way as the overuse of surgical procedures.

Basically, unnecessary surgery arises from three recognized causes: ignorance, incorrect judgment, or dishonesty (which would encompass incompetence, indifference, or immorality). From these three, the ethical and medico-legal implications of a procedure that is not supported or justified by scientific evidence clearly emerge.28 Monitoring, supervision and auditing systems should be promoting within medical institutions at a general level. Professional associations must advocate for transparent policies and therapeutic decisions based on scientific evidence as well as good clinical practice guidelines, which should be adjusted for each hospital setting.

In this manner, medical associations should promote the ethics of competence in the style proposed by Arnau de Vilanova (1238–1311) and Richard Cabot (1868–1939), while likewise remembering the proposals by Engelbert Dunphy in his presidential speech upon assuming leadership of the American College of Surgeons in 1963: “Surgeons have a collective responsibility to seek benefits for humanity. The autonomy of the individual surgeon is conditional, since society agrees with surgeons that they will act for the benefit of humanity. Hence the importance of a central authority that ensures compliance with professional standards, which represent the core of Ethics in Surgery”.29

Sources of funding

None.

Conflicts of interest

None.

References
[1]
W. Stokes.
The ethics of operative surgery.
John Falconer, (1894),
[2]
E.W.H. Groves.
Surgical statistics: a plea for a uniform registration of operation results.
Br Med J, 2 (1908), pp. 1008-1009
[3]
H.G. Wetherill.
A plea for higher hospital efficiency and standardization.
Surg Gynecol Obstet, 20 (1915), pp. 705-707
[4]
E.A. Codman.
The products of a hospital.
Surg Gynecol Obstet, 18 (1914), pp. 49-496
[5]
W.D. Haggard.
The unnecessary operation.
Surg Gynecol Obstet, 35 (1922), pp. 820-822
[6]
Unneeded operating charged to surgeons. The New York Times, 17 February 1953.
[7]
K. Thomas, J. Silver-Greenberg, R. Gebeloff.
Operating profit: patients lost limbs as doctors and health care giants prospered.
The New York Times, (2023), pp. 1
[8]
Licholai G. Combating the growing rate of unnecessary surgery. Forbes, 2 August 2023. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/greglicholai/2023/08/02/combating-the-growing-rate-of-unnecessary-surgeries/?sh=282a2732603c.
[9]
L.L. Leape.
Unnecessary surgery.
Ann Rev Public Health, 13 (1992), pp. 363-383
[10]
M.K. Pauly.
What is unnecessary surgery?.
Milbank Mem Fund Q Health Soc, 57 (1979), pp. 95-117
[11]
A.D. Bevan.
Foreword.
Surgical errors and safeguards,
[12]
T.G. Weiser, S.E. Regenbogen, K.D. Thompson, A.B. Haynes, S.R. Lipsitz, W.R. Berry, et al.
An estimation of the global volume of surgery: a modelling strategy based on available data.
[13]
G. Crile.
Surgeons are the best judges of surgery.
Mod Med, (1976),
[14]
E.G. McCarthy, G.W. Wicimer.
Effects of screening by consultants on recommended elective surgical procedures.
N Engl J Med, 291 (1974), pp. 1331
[15]
American College of Surgeons-American Surgical Association.
Surgery in the US: The Study on Surgical Services for the United States (SOSSUS).
ACS, (1975),
[16]
S.V. Srinivas, R.A. Deyo, Z.D. Berger.
Application of “less is more” to low back pain.
Arch Intern Med, 172 (2012), pp. 1016-1020
[17]
T.L. Jarvinen, G.H. Guyatt.
Arthroscopic surgery for knee pain.
BMJ, 354 (2016), pp. i3934
[18]
R. Sihnoven, M. Paavola, A. Malmivaara, A. Joukainen, H. Nurmi, J. Kalske, et al.
Arthroscopic partial meniscectomy versus sham surgery for a degenerative meniscal tear.
N Engl J Med, 369 (2013), pp. 2515-2524
[19]
J.D. Marsh, R. Degen, T.B. Birmingham, J.R. Giffin, A. Getgood, R. Litchield, et al.
The rate of unnecessary interventions for the management of knee osteoarthritis: a population-based cohort study.
Can J Surg, 65 (2022), pp. E114-E120
[20]
J. Fraiman, S. Brownlee, M.A. Stoto, K.W. Lin, A.N. Huffstetler.
An estimate of the US rate of overuse of screening colonoscopy: a systematic review.
J Gen Intern Med, 37 (2022), pp. 1754-1762
[21]
Ischemia Trial Research Group, D.J. Maron, J.S. Hochman, S.M. O’Brien, H.R. Reynolds, W.E. Boden, G.W. Stone, et al.
International study of comparative health effectiveness with medical and invasive approaches (ISCHEMIA) trial: rational and design.
Am Heart J, 201 (2018), pp. 124-135
[22]
N.R. Desai, P.M. Bourdillon, C.S. Parzynski, R.G. Brindis, E.S. Spatz, C. Masters, et al.
Association of the US Department of Justice investigation of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators and devices not meeting the Medicare National Coverage determination, 2007–2015.
[23]
D.R. Flum, T. Koepsell.
The clinical and economic correlates of misdiagnosed appendicitis.
Arch Surg, 137 (2002), pp. 799-804
[24]
T.J. Wilt, M.K. Brawer, K.M. Jones, M.J. Barry, W.J. Aronson, S. Fox, et al.
Radical prostatectomy versus observation for localized prostate cancer.
N Engl J Med, 367 (2012), pp. 203-213
[25]
C.M. Angolile, B.L. Max, J. Mushemba, H.L. Mashauri.
Global increased cesarean section rates and public health implications: a call to action.
Health Sci Rep, 6 (2023), pp. e1274
[26]
L. Albarqouni.
Overuse of surgical procedures in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs): a scoping review of the extent, drivers, consequences, and solutions.
BMJ Evid Based Med, 28 (2023), pp. A31
[27]
P.F. Stahel, T.F. VanderHeiden, F.J. Kim.
Why do surgeons continue to perform unnecessary surgery (Editorial).
Patient Saf Surg, 11 (2017), pp. 1
[28]
Ferreres, Alberto R. “La cirugía innecesaria”. Abril 2005. CIE. Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires. Available from: htpp://www.errorenmedicina.anm.edu.ar. [Accessed 28 July 2021].
[29]
J.E. Dunphy.
Responsibility and authority in American surgery.
Bull Am Coll Surg, 49 (1964), pp. 9-12

Please cite this article as: Ferreres AR. La cirugia innecesaria. Cir Esp. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ciresp.2023.11.001

Copyright © 2023. AEC
Download PDF
Article options
es en pt

¿Es usted profesional sanitario apto para prescribir o dispensar medicamentos?

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?

Você é um profissional de saúde habilitado a prescrever ou dispensar medicamentos