World renewal rituals among the Postclassic Yucatec Maya and contemporary Ch’orti’ Maya

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Sánchez)" ] ] ] "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Andrea Cucina, Vera Tiesler" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Andrea" "apellidos" => "Cucina" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Vera" "apellidos" => "Tiesler" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Joel Palka" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Joel" "apellidos" => "Palka" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0185257415300058?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/01852574/0000004500000045/v3_201505181422/S0185257415300058/v3_201505181422/en/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:18 [ "pii" => "S0185257415300034" "issn" => "01852574" "doi" => "10.1016/S0185-2574(15)30003-4" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2015-01-01" "aid" => "73044" "copyright" => "Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México" "documento" => "article" "licencia" => "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Estudios de Cultura Maya. 2015;45:91-120" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => true "ES2" => true "LATM" => true ] "gratuito" => true "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 2159 "formatos" => array:3 [ "EPUB" => 36 "HTML" => 1449 "PDF" => 674 ] ] "es" => array:10 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "titulo" => "Siete cartas inéditas de Yucatán: comunicación privada entre mayas y españoles, y explotación ilegal del añil en el siglo XVI" "tienePdf" => "es" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "es" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "es" 1 => "en" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "91" "paginaFinal" => "120" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "es" => true "en" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Caroline Cunill" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Caroline" "apellidos" => "Cunill" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0185257415300034?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/01852574/0000004500000045/v3_201505181422/S0185257415300034/v3_201505181422/es/main.assets" ] "en" => array:18 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "titulo" => "World renewal rituals among the Postclassic Yucatec Maya and contemporary Ch’orti’ Maya" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "121" "paginaFinal" => "140" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "autoresLista" => "Gabrielle Vail, Matthew G. Looper" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Gabrielle" "apellidos" => "Vail" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Matthew G." "apellidos" => "Looper" ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "New College of Florida and California State University" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 993 "Ancho" => 1247 "Tamanyo" => 304951 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "The birth of the rains, personified by Chaak, on Dresden Codex 31b-35b. After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">Förstemann (1880)</a>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<a name="p122"></a><a name="p123"></a>Andrea Stone’s work has served as an inspiration to both of us throughout our careers. We dedicate this paper to her memory as an esteemed colleague and valued friend.IntroductionPrevious researchers have commented on connections between renewal ceremonies practiced in various contemporary Maya communities (see, e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010">Bricker, 1989</a>, for Zinacantán, Chiapas; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">Gabriel, 2009</a>, for Yucatán; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020">Christenson, 2001</a>, for Santiago Atitlán, Guatemala; and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">Thompson, 1999</a>, for Tekanto, Yucatán) with those of the prehispanic period, specifically as depicted in the Dresden Codex “yearbearer” pages (i.e., those depicting the end of one year and the start of the next). Our decision to compare the prehispanic yearbearer ceremonies with agricultural renewal rituals practiced by the Ch’orti’ living today in southern Guatemala, chosen from among the dozens of ethnographic ceremonies that could have been selected, stems from the close similarities we have noted in their performances and the fact that they have not been previously compared. Although they are separated by great distances in time and space, our analysis suggests the possibility that renewal ceremonies similar to those depicted for the yearbearer days in the Maya codices were part of a widespread tradition that encompassed much, if not all, of the Maya region inhabited during the Terminal Classic and Postclassic periods.Dresden Yearbearer RitualsEthnohistoric sources provide a wealth of detail regarding the ritual transition from one year (haab’) to the next among the Yucatec cultures on the eve of Spanish contact. This ceremonial transfer of power, involving a shift in the ruling deities, took place during the five days at the end of the year (the nameless days,<a name="p124"></a> or Wayeb’); and a second series of rituals was associated with the first day or days of the new year, occurring in the month of Pop (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer, 1941</a>: 136-153).Pages 25-28 of the Dresden Codex (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">figure 1</a>) have long been identified as being associated with the Wayeb’ ceremonies (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">Thomas, 1882</a>; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125">Thompson, 1972</a>). There are significant points of comparison between ethnohistoric descriptions (particularly those of Bishop Diego de Landa) and the activities and events depicted on the Dresden pages. As Landa’s discussion makes clear, four of the days in the Maya tzolk’in calendar, consisting of 20 named days paired with 13 numbers, can begin the year. In the system in use at the time of the Conquest, these days were K’an, Muluk, Ix, and Kawak (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer, 1941</a>: 136-138).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia>A different yearbearer system has been documented for earlier time periods, however, in which the transition from the old year to the new year involved the days Ik’, Manik’, Eb’, and Kab’an, or alternately, Ak’b’al (the day after Ik’), Lamat (the day after Manik’), B’en (the day after Eb’), and Etz’nab’ (the day after Kab’an) (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025">Edmonson, 1986</a>). This is the system that appears in the Dresden Codex (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">Bricker and Vail, 1997</a>). It is recorded not only in the yearbearer almanac on pages 25-28, but in other contexts as well, such as the almanac (also with a yearbearer function) on pages 31b-35b (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">figure 3</a>).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia>It takes 52 years to cycle through each of the four yearbearer days paired with the 13 numbers in the tzolk’in. In other words, the cycle at the time of Landa’s writing would have begun with a year 1 K’an, moved next (after 365 days) to 2<a name="p125"></a> Muluk, from there, after another 365 days, to 3 Ix, then to 4 Kawak, 5 K’an, 6 Muluk … and finished with 13 Kawak. Returning to 1 K’an would have completed the 52-year cycle (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">figure 2</a>).The Dresden yearbearer pages reference two different dates on each page: Eb’ and B’en on D. 25, Kab’an and Etz’nab’ on D. 26, Ik’ and Ak’b’al on D. 27, and Manik’ and Lamat on D. 28. There has been a considerable amount of discussion concerning the position of these dates in the haab’ calendar —i.e., do they refer to the first and second days of Wayeb’ (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005">H. Bricker and V. Bricker, 2011</a>), or to the last day of Wayeb’ and the first day of Pop (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">Taube, 1988</a>; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140">Vail, 2004</a>)? Our position is that the latter makes the most sense from a comparison of Landa’s description of the Wayeb’ events with the information detailed in the codex. We follow <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Vail and Hernández (2013)</a>, however, in suggesting that the lower register on each page serves a dual role —it marks the start of the rituals in a particular<a name="p126"></a> year, thereby corresponding to the first day of Wayeb’, after which one moves to the top of the next page (to the last day of Wayeb’), and then to the rituals associated with the beginning of Pop, illustrated in the bottom two registers of the page.To take a concrete example, D. 25c shows the ritual that ends the sequence that was initiated on D. 28c and D. 25a and b.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0005">1</a> The ceremony involves the transfer of the deity patron of the year from the god of sustenance K’awil (on D. 28c and 25a-b) to the sun god K’inich Ahaw, who is installed as the patron of the new year on D. 25c. 360 days later, at the start of Wayeb’, this register (D. 25c) becomes relevant again, corresponding to Landa’s description of the ceremony at the edge of town in which offerings are made at an altar, and a hen is sacrificed. Landa’s “statue” (K’inich Ahaw) is then carried in a procession during which a number of dances are performed, as is illustrated on D. 26a. The key elements in this composition include the jaguar (an aspect of the sun god), who is being carried by an opossum figure dressed as a ritual performer (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115">Taube, 1989</a> and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145">Vail, 2012</a> for a detailed discussion of this figure). This takes place on the last day of Wayeb’, after which the sun god is given offerings in the house of the principal, which include pom incense, seven hearts, and chak wah, a type of ritual “bread”. On the same day that the sun god’s rulership is ritually terminated, the patron of the next year (Itzamna) is installed as the new deity patron.Important elements in the transfer include a shift in directional affiliations from east, associated with B’en years and the sun god, to north, associated with Etz’nab’ years and Itzamna, and the “deactivation” of the deity representative of the previous year which is suggested by the placing of his cape so that it covers the front of his body and by the shift in auguries to agree with those associated with the deaty in the lowe register, rather than the deity picture. The deities who serve as the patrons (or more appropriately “burdens”) of the year for all 52 years in the sequence include the sun god K’inich Ahaw and the jaguar for east years; the creator Itzamna and the maize god for north years; the death god for west years; and the god of lightning and sustenance K’awil for south years.Not included in Landa’s discussion is the setting up of a “tree” to mark the beginning of the new year. In the Colonial period Books of Chilam Balam, trees were set up following a great food that destroyed the previous creation (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">Taube, 1988</a>). The depictions of these trees in the Dresden Codex show them as personified stone columns (perhaps stalagmites),<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0010">2</a> dressed in a loincloth and cape. At their top is vegetation and a snake, suggesting that they represent the akantun (ah, ‘he who’, kaan, ‘serpent’, tun, ‘stone’) discussed by Landa, where bloodletting rituals were performed during the yearbearer ceremonies (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090">MacLeod, 1989</a>; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer, 1941</a>: 141, 144).<a name="p127"></a>On D. 25c, the rain deity Chaak personifies the tree (i.e., his head appears in place of the serpent). Both Chaak and serpents are symbolic of rain and the power of lightning to germinate seeds, suggesting the likelihood that the ceremonies being performed in the bottom register were agricultural and/or rainmaking rituals. This idea is reinforced by the burning of incense (an action that is performed in ceremonies today to call the rains) and the presence of possible stalagmites. If the stone objects do represent stalagmites, they were likely meant to symbolize a cave location; as <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100">Andrea Stone (1989</a>, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105">2005</a>) notes, yearbearer and other period-ending rituals were often performed in cave contexts. The presence of glyphs symbolizing cenotes in the upper registers on pages 27 and 28 is likewise suggestive of the performance of yearbearer ceremonies at watery, underworld locales.That the Dresden yearbearer almanac was concerned with rituals to ensure adequate rainfall and thereby an abundant crop is also suggested by the hieroglyphic captions to the lower register, which give prognostications for each year. These vary from “woe to the maize and drought” on D. 25c to “an abundance of food and drink” on D. 28c. The yearbearer almanac in the Madrid Codex (M. 34-37) includes similar prognostications, which are displayed iconographically in addition to being included in the hieroglyphic captions. For example, the death god is shown in the lower left of M. 34 with the head of the rain god in his hand, likely signifying the death of the maize crop due to too little rain.<a name="p128"></a>The almanac on D. 31b-35b (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">figure 3</a>) also emphasizes yearbearer rituals, although in this case the protagonist in each of the frames is Chaak. The almanac includes four sets of dates, which include both yearbearer and “Burner” (fire) rituals. Each set of dates is associated with two separate pictures, organized as follows.<a name="p129"></a><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia>Each set of dates is separated from the next by a period of 13 years, yielding a Calendar Round cycle highlighting the yearbearer dates 10 B’en (1 Pop), 10 Etz’nab’ (1 Pop), 10 Ak’b’al (1 Pop), and 10 Lamat (1 Pop). B’en years are associated with the east; Etz’nab’ years with the north; Ak’b’al years with the west; and Lamat years with the south, as is likewise the case on Dresden 25-28. Chaak is the protagonist of all eight pictures, the first of which shows him dressed as a yearbearer Mam. The other pictures in the first set also portray Chaak in the guise of a yearbearer, holding one or more lighted torches; note, however, that he wears a K’awil headdress in the last picture in this set, associated with the south. This is significant because K’awil is the burden of south years in the yearbearer almanac on D. 25-28.The second set of pictures on D. 31b-35b depicts, in all but the first example, Chaak emerging from the open jaws of a serpent, whose body forms the walls of a cenote. The hieroglyphic captions refer to Chaak (or the rain) entering (i.e., emerging) from the stone. This is associated with nine offerings of incense to the earth-cave, or primordial place of creation. The D. 31b-35b almanac has a number of specific links to Ch’orti’ agricultural renewal ceremonies, as discussed below.The Madrid Codex also details the ceremonies associated with the beginning of Pop. Among the other rituals that Landa discusses are those that involve drilling new fire and ritual cleansing (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer, 1941</a>: 151-152):To celebrate it [the new year] with more solemnity, they renewed on this day all the objects which they made use of, such as plates, vessels, stools, mats and old clothes and the stuffs with which they wrapped up the idols… It was at this time that they chose officials, the Chacs to assist the priest, and he prepared a large number of little balls of fresh incense… so that the fasters and abstainers might burn them in honor of their idols…New Year’s day having then arrived, all the men assembled in the court of the temple… The Chacs seated themselves at the four corners, and stretched from one to the other a new cord, within which were to enter all those who had fasted, in order to drive out the evil spirit… [T]he Chacs kindled the new fire, and lighted the brazier… and they burned incense to the idol with new fire.As scholars have previously noted, the almanac on page 19b of the Madrid Codex (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">figure 4</a>) shows a variant of the ritual described by Landa of stretching a rope around the corners of the temple courtyard (in this instance, the rope is being used to perform a loodletting ritual, which is another ceremony that Landa describes [<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer, 1941</a>: 114]). Some of the elements of importance in the scene include the four ritual participants (Landa’s “Chaaks”), plus the “priest” (Itzamna); the temple or altar in the center of the scene, which is painted blue; and the turtle with the yax glyph pictured next to Itzamna. This can be identified as the “idol” that Landa describes being worshiped during Muluk new year ceremonies, called Yax Cocah Mut (yax, ‘first’, kok, ‘turtle’, ah mut, ‘omen’; see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070">Knowlton and Vail, 2010</a> and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Vail and Hernández, 2013</a>).<a name="p130"></a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia>Several of the deities from Madrid 19b are also pictured drilling new fire in the almanacs on Madrid pages 38b, 38c, and 51a, including the black merchant deity (God M) and Itzamna. As we discuss below, this is one of the rituals associated with the annual renewal ceremonies of the contemporary Ch’orti’ Maya.Ch’orti’ Renewal RitualsAmong the Ch’orti’ of southeastern Guatemala and western Honduras, creation symbolism is integral to annual agricultural ceremonies. The information concerning these rituals derives mainly from the work of the Swiss ethnologist Raphael Girard, who focuses on rites performed at Quezaltepeque in the early twentieth century (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">Girard, 1949</a>, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">1962</a>, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">1966</a>). Additional information appears in the work<a name="p131"></a> of <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Fought (1972)</a>, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">López and Metz (2002</a>: 206-9), and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Wisdom (1940)</a>. More recent work by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich (2006)</a> supplements, and largely confirms, the data gathered by Girard.At Quezaltepeque, the confraternity of Saint Francis the Conqueror is responsible for the agrarian cult, which includes rainmaking activities. Ritual specialists, a married couple entitled Padrino and Madrina Titular (Godfather and Godmother in Office), carry out their duties for a period of two years, while five younger men called Adornantes or “Decorators” assist the elders (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich, 2006</a>: 388). The rituals are directed toward the fertility deities Saint Francis and the Virgin Mary, whose offspring is the Maize God (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">Girard, 1966</a>: 22).The agricultural cycle is structured according to a count of 260 days, starting on February 8 and ending on October 25 (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>). February 8, a date associated with cosmic renewal and Creation, is marked by a pilgrimage to the sacred pool of El Orégano, located to the west of town. This body of water is recognized as a portal to the underworld, as well as a cosmic basin from which clouds take their water. At this sacred place, the ritual participants prepare a mesa, or ritual feast for the gods. Five gourds of chilate, a ceremonial drink made from maize and cacao, are placed upon a cloth spread on the ground. Arranged in a quincunx, these offerings are viewed as a “payment” to the spirits of the four directions to withhold wind and rain until the fields are ready for planting (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Fought, 1972</a>: 416). After returning to the temple of Saint Francis in Quezaltepeque, the elders capture malevolent winds, which are stored in sealed jugs. These will remain beneath the saint’s altar until the agricultural season is over. A set of stones gathered previously at the El Orégano pool is arranged atop the saint’s table, and four additional stones are placed at the corners of the temple. Finally, a feast is served on an adjacent table.Following these Creation rituals, the fields are cleared of vegetation, concluding by the time of the vernal equinox (March 20). Activity begins again on Good Friday, when, following ceremonies in the church, a mesa is set in the temple of Saint Francis. On the next day, the padrino extinguishes the temple fire and starts a new fire, from which the domestic hearths are relit. <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard (1962</a>: 66) mentions that in Chiquimula, this ritual is conducted using the ancient technique of drilling, in which a stick is placed in a socket on a board and then spun between the hands until sparks appear. This rite announces the time when the fields should be burned, thereby feeding the clouds that bring rain.The major ritual of the rain cult (the “fetching of the rainy season”) starts on April 22, just before the rainy season is supposed to begin (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>: 81; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich, 2006</a>: 388-97). A pilgrimage is made to the sacred spring that is the source of the Conquista River, located near the hamlet of Azacualpa in the municipio of Quezaltepeque. This spring is associated with the crucifixion of Christ and the transformation of his flowing blood into the primordial rain (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>: 225). It is also the abode of the Noh Chih Chan, a great serpent that guards the water (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>: 95). Sacrificial offerings encourage this deity<a name="p132"></a> to release the moisture that transforms into clouds that bring rain to the fields. In the clearing near the spring, the Padrino dedicates a cross that is inscribed with his name adjacent to the crosses of his predecessors. All crosses are then adorned with conte leaves, and candles are lit before them. Meanwhile, at the temple of Saint Francis, the women prepare food (tamalitos) to feed pilgrims to the shrine and replace the dry altar adornments with fresh greenery (conte leaves and green coconuts).The next day (April 23), the women prepare additional ceremonial foods, including chilate, tamales, bean empanadas, and maize tortillas. In the evening, a procession departs for the sacred spring. According to <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard (1962</a>: 86), this locale represents the underworld; and on this night, the men recite prayers in order to open a portal between the two mountains that block its entrance. Upon reaching the spring late at night, a ritual meal is spread on the ground and consumed by the specialists. The padrinos pray, burn incense, and then sacrifice a young female turkey to the Noh Chih Chan by drowning. The men allow the water current to suck the bird’s body into the pool. Afterward, chilate is poured into the spring, followed by the blood of a male turkey (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich, 2006</a>: 397). When Girard made his observations, these offerings were placed in a pit in the earth rather than the sacred spring itself, from which drinking water was being drawn (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>: 92-3, 95).On April 24, the altar of Saint Francis is fully adorned, and a canoe containing aquatic animals and water from the sacred spring is placed beneath it. <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard (1962</a>: 110-111) states that this canoe symbolizes the navel or heart of the earth and is thus equivalent to the pit dug near the sacred spring. Its placement beneath the altar of Saint Francis associates this location with the underworld. At midnight, a mesa dedicated to the rain gods is set in the temple. The next night, and each night afterward until regular rainfall commences, the interior of the temple is sprinkled with water in order to induce the gods to send rain to the fields (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard 1962</a>: 112). Following this complex ritual sequence, men initiate the planting of the fields, accompanied by additional sacrifices of birds and chilate in holes dug in the milpa (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Wisdom, 1940</a>: 441-444).The rainy season is officially inaugurated on April 30-May 1 by the zenith passage of the sun. According to <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard (1962</a>: 79, 148-149), the Ch’orti’ conceive this event as the impregnation of the earth by the “fertility god” when he passes through the zenith at noon. To mark this date, they observe noontime shadows as well as astral phenomena, including significant positions of Orion, the “Cross of May”, and the Pleiades (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Fought, 1972</a>: 59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>: 78, 147). Shortly afterwards, on May 2, a mesa is set in the temple to Saint Francis. This is repeated every nine nights through the end of the rainy season. Each time, the greenery of the altar is refreshed, and chilate is poured to the four corners of the temple patio and under the altar.Similar ceremonies of rainmaking and offerings to the earth may also occur later in the agricultural season, in association with the second planting of the<a name="p133"></a>milpa. This occurs around August 12 or 13, marked by the second solar zenith passage. However, these ceremonies are on a smaller scale than those held on the first zenith passage of the sun (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard, 1962</a>: 253-254). The rainy season rites conclude on October 25 with the “turning of the mesa,” when the ritual vessels are emptied, washed, and inverted, and the altar adornments are replaced with red, yellow and purple flowers, symbolizing the dry season.In summary, the contemporary Ch’orti’ rain cult involves the coordinated activities of ritual specialists at locations both at the cult temple and in the wilderness. Rites emphasize the use of sympathetic magic, such as scattering water and pouring chilate or blood, as well as ritualized exchange involving the offering of candles, incense, lavish meals, and sacrificial birds. The main purpose of these rites is to provide sustenance to the rain gods. In exchange, the gods are expected to supply regular rainfall during the agricultural season. The overall schedule for these rites may be recapitulated as follows:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005">•Feb. 8: mesa at sacred pool; capturing of winds in temple; stones set in temple (Creation).</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010">•Saturday of Holy Week: new fire drilled.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015">•April 22: dedication of inscribed cross.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020">•April 23: ritual meal at sacred spring, sacrifice of fowl and chilate at spring.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025">•April 24: altar fully adorned; temple watered.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030">•April 30-May 1: first zenith passage of the sun.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035">•May 2: mesa set in temple to be renewed every nine days.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040">•October 25: “turning of the mesa”, closing the rainy season rites.</li></ul>The Ch’orti’ agricultural ritual cycle emphasizes specific elements which are also found among the Yucatec Maya. The Ch’orti’ extensively evoke foundation events, initially through the quincunx of stones that is erected on the altar in the Saint Francis temple and the four stones that are set at the temple’s corners. The same pattern is later refected in the arrangement of mesas (ritual meals) at sacred locales in the landscape, particularly at the spring that is the source of the Conquista River.Acts of sacrifice are fundamental to the aims of the ritual cycle. These mainly take the form of food offerings placed on mesas in the temple of Saint Francis, as well as meals prepared at the sacred spring. Incense and candles are also offered. Most dramatic is the offering of male and female turkeys at the sacred spring.The Ch’orti’ ritual cycle involves complex and repeated petitions to deities of rain and the earth. Sacrifices to the serpent Noh Chih Chan are made at the sacred spring. Mesas and prayers are offered to the rain gods at the El Orégano pool and in the temple of Saint Francis throughout the growing season. In addition, liquid offerings to the spirit of the earth are poured into pits dug in fields or the sacred spring. The vertical movement of these offerings replicates the cosmic act of impregnation of the earth by the sun as well as the descent of rain to the<a name="p134"></a> earth. The cacao drinks that are used extensively in these rituals are specifically associated with the cold, moist rainy season (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich, 2006</a>: 401-405).Finally, the Ch’orti’ agricultural rituals also emphasize sacred watery places. These include the El Orégano pool and the sacred spring, believed to be rainwater basins and sacred underworld locations. The ritualists attempt to transform the temple of Saint Francis into a realm attractive to the rain deities by sprinkling it with sacred water and by maintaining a water-filled canoe placed beneath the altar.ComparisonsA number of specific parallels can be noted between the ceremonies documented among the contemporary Ch’orti’ of Quezaltepeque and those depicted in the Maya codices and described by Diego de Landa (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer, 1941</a>). The first set of comparisons involves the almanac on Dresden pages 31b-35b, which has links to the mesa celebrated at the sacred pool and the drilling of new fire. Comparisons can be made between the four paired frames showing Chaak emerging from a cenote —and Ch’orti’ rituals at the sacred spring of El Orégano, which also involve the setting of four stones in the temple. Among the Ch’orti’, these events take place on February 8 and are undertaken to replicate the original events of creation and ensure cosmic renewal. The pool where the rituals take place is believed to be a portal to the underworld, much as is true of the serpent cenotes in the Dresden almanac; it likewise serves as a place of evaporation from which clouds derive their water. This function is made explicit in the Dresden almanac by the portrayal of Chaak rising from the cenote/serpent stone with his upraised axe. His presence here serves to symbolize the waters that will rise into the sky and fall as rain during the upcoming rainy season.It is also significant that the Ch’orti’ ritual involves the placement of a set of stones from the sacred pool on the saint’s altar, and the setting of four stones at the corners of the temple. These can be compared to the “stones” pictured and described in the text of the Dresden almanac, which likewise have a connection with the stones set at the time of creation according to Classic period Maya texts such as Quiriguá Stela C (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">figure 5</a>). They can also be compared to the ah kaan tun, or serpent stones, pictured on Dresden 25c-28c, which serve as the focal point for the rituals undertaken by the deities of the incoming year. This provides another link among these objects, Chaak, and ceremonies to call the rains.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia>Various explanations have been offered for the frames that show Chaak holding torches on D. 31b-35b, including their relationship to a set of rituals involving the lighting and extinguishing of fres by the “Burners” (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Vail and Hernández, 2013</a>). One possibility that has not been previously considered is that the torches held by Chaak relate to the drilling of new fire associated with agricultural renewal rituals, as documented among the Ch’orti’ (see previous discussion). After new fire was drilled (as, for example, on Madrid 51a [<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">figure 6</a>]), torches were lit so they could be used to reignite the fres at each of the temples and houses.<a name="p135"></a><a name="p136"></a><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia>A number of other specific inferences can be made by comparing the events associated with late April among the Ch’orti’ and the Dresden yearbearer pages, although the seasonality of the two sets of rituals differs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0015">3</a> Nevertheless both were clearly developed with the object of petitioning the rain deities and ensuring a bountiful harvest, suggesting that a comparison of specific details is warrented.In the Quezaltepeque area, April 22 is the day associated with “fetching the rainy season”; specific events include sacrificial offerings to the serpent Noh Chih Chan to encourage him to feed the rain clouds, the dedication of the cross and its adorning with conte leaves, and the lighting of candles before the crosses. The lower register of the Dresden yearbearer almanac has a number of specific parallels to these events, including the emphasis on Chaak and serpents, which can be associated with the Noh Chih Chan and rainmaking ceremonies. Likewise, the dedication of the cross in the Ch’orti’ ritual can be compared to the setting up of the “tree” in the Dresden almanac, which is decorated with leaves (like the crosses). Instead of burning candles before the trees, however, the burning of incense is portrayed.On the following day in the Ch’orti’ ceremony, a ritual meal is consumed at the spring (note the food offerings on Dresden 25c-28c), incense is burned, and a young female turkey is sacrificed to the Noh Chih Chan. In the Ch’orti’ ritual, the turkey is sacrificed by drowning, whereas decapitation is the method depicted in the Dresden almanac. The canoe that is set up under the altar on April 24 in the Ch’orti’ ritual may have parallels with the cenote imagery pictured in the upper register on pages 27 and 28 of the Dresden almanac. Like the canoe containing sacred water from the spring, cenotes also symbolize the “navel” or heart of the earth and provide a means of accessing the underworld. Moreover, the mesa to the rain gods set in the temple at midnight in the Ch’orti’ ritual calls to mind the offerings of food placed before the deities of the outgoing year in their temples in the middle register of the Dresden almanac.The Ch’orti’ ritual incorporates the beginning of the rainy season, which is associated with the zenith passage of the sun on April 30. This event is not represented in the Dresden yearbearer almanac, given its focus on events falling later in the year.The Madrid yearbearer almanac, like that in the Dresden Codex, refers to dates in August and July in the tropical year (because the haab’ is .2422 days shorter than the tropical year, yearbearer dates recessed by approximately one day every four years over the course of the tropical year). However, unlike the Dresden almanac, it appears to show a range of activities that fall in different months<a name="p137"></a> of the year, as suggested by the haab’ dates scattered among the iconography (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">Hernández and Bricker, 2004</a>). Activities that are important include planting (in Yucatán, initial planting of the maize fields would have occurred in late May or early June, with a re-planting taking place several weeks later), feasting, the lighting of fres, and bloodletting rituals. Each of these activities, as previously noted, has correlates with the agricultural renewal ceremonies of the Ch’orti’. The planting of seeds using a digging stick on M. 34a-37a recalls the Ch’orti’ belief that the zenith passage of the sun involves the impregnation of the earth by a fertility god during the sun’s noontime zenith transit. Additionally, the hieroglyphic texts accompanying the Madrid yearbearer almanac include references to the four color-directional clouds, which evoke the sacrifices made to the Noh Chih Chan so that they would transform into the rain clouds.Final considerationsLike contemporary Ch’orti’ agricultural renewal ceremonies, the prehispanic renewal rituals, celebrated at the transition from one year to the next, also involved the movement of ritual specialists from temple locations within the community to sacred, watery places outside the confines of the community. Both sets of rituals incorporate sympathetic magic, such as the scattering and burning of incense to induce the rains, and are characterized by similar types of offerings including incense, food and drink, and sacrificial birds. For the prehispanic Maya as well as the Ch’orti’, the main purpose of these rites involved providing sustenance to the rain gods, who are expected in return to supply plentiful rainfall to ensure the success of the maize and other crops.Although substantial differences characterize contemporary Ch’orti’ rituals of agricultural renewal and the yearbearer rituals undertaken by the prehispanic Maya, what is evident is that the two share a complex of activities and symbols that can be recognized as structurally equivalent despite the many changes that have occurred during the more than 500 years since the Spanish first set foot on the soil of Mesoamerica.<a name="p138"></a>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:10 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres505771" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526892" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres505772" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526891" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Dresden Yearbearer Rituals" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Ch’orti’ Renewal Rituals" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Comparisons" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Final considerations" ] 9 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2013-11-25" "fechaAceptado" => "2014-01-18" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526892" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Yucatec Maya" 1 => "Ch’orti’ Maya" 2 => "yearbearer rituals" 3 => "agricultural rituals" 4 => "world renewal ceremonies" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526891" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "maya yucateco" 1 => "ch’orti’" 2 => "rituales de portador del año" 3 => "ritos agrícolas" 4 => "ceremonias de renovación del mundo" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "Archaeological, epigraphic, and ethnohistoric studies indicate that world renewal rituals were an important feature of prehispanic Maya society and continue to play a seminal role in indigenous communities throughout the Maya area today. Our discussion examines two examples of the multitude of such rituals that were performed to recreate the world by replicating the actions undertaken by the primordial deities at the beginning of the present creation. The first involves ceremonies performed by the Yucatec Maya during the Postclassic period (13th through 15th centuries) to ritually terminate the old year and begin anew by establishing a “tree” to mark the trees set up in the four quadrants at the creation of the present world, as documented in the prehispanic Maya codices and the colonial period Books of Chilam Balam, written by indigenous scribes in the alphabetic script introduced by the Spanish friars in the 16th century. The second involves Ch’orti’ speakers living in southern Guatemala today, who perform similar rituals that involve a series of ceremonies undertaken over the course of the rainy season to ensure agricultural fertility. Both ritual complexes involve foundation events, acts of sacrifice, petitions to the rain and earth deities, and an emphasis on sacred watery places." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "Los estudios arqueológicos epigráficos y etnohistóricos indican que los rituales de renovación del mundo constituyeron un rasgo importante de la sociedad maya prehispánica y continúan desempeñando un papel fundamental en las comunidades mayas actuales. Aquí examinaremos dos ejemplos de tales rituales realizados para recrear el mundo replicando las acciones de las deidades primordiales al inicio de la creación actual. El primero involucra las ceremonias realizadas por los mayas yucatecos del periodo Posclásico, para terminar el año viejo e iniciar el nuevo estableciendo un “árbol” para evocar aquellos árboles erigidos en los cuatro cuadrantes al inicio del mundo presente, tal y como está documentado en los códices mayas prehispánicos y en los Libros del Chilam Balam del período colonial, escritos por indígenas con la escritura alfabética introducida por los frailes españoles en el siglo xvi. El segundo involucra a los hablantes de ch’orti del sur de Guatemala que ejecutan en la actualidad rituales similares, basados en una serie de ceremonias realizadas durante la temporada de lluvias para asegurar la fertilidad agrícola. Ambos complejos rituales incluyen eventos de fundación, sacrificio, peticiones a las deidades de la lluvia y un énfasis en lugares sagrados acuosos." ] ] "NotaPie" => array:3 [ 0 => array:3 [ "etiqueta" => "1" "nota" => "We follow Thompson (1972: 90) in suggesting that the pictures and hieroglyphic captions on pages 26c and 28c were transposed by the scribe. In the discussion that follows, we associate page 26c with Itzamna and the north and page 28c with K’awil and the south." "identificador" => "fn0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "etiqueta" => "2" "nota" => "Note that they are marked with the “Kawak” or ‘stone’ glyph (T528)." "identificador" => "fn0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "etiqueta" => "3" "nota" => "Yearbearer ceremonies like those depicted in the Dresden almanac fell in mid-August during the early 15th century. In this respect, their timing corresponds much more closely with the rituals performed in conjunction with the second zenith passage (i.e. on August 12-13) in the Ch’orti’ area. A detailed comparison however, suggests a closer correspondence between the events depicted on Dresden 25-28 and the April rituals, as discussed below." "identificador" => "fn0015" ] ] "multimedia" => array:7 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 911 "Ancho" => 1614 "Tamanyo" => 367745 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Yearbearer ceremonies on pages 25-28 of the Dresden Codex. After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">Förstemann (1880)</a>" ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1310 "Ancho" => 1409 "Tamanyo" => 423271 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "The calendar round almanac on pages 75-76 of the Madrid Codex. After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">Gates (1911)</a>" ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 993 "Ancho" => 1247 "Tamanyo" => 304951 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "The birth of the rains, personified by Chaak, on Dresden Codex 31b-35b. After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">Förstemann (1880)</a>" ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1417 "Ancho" => 1019 "Tamanyo" => 305332 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Renewal rituals associated with 4 Ahaw on Madrid Codex 19b. After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095">De Rosny (1883)</a>" ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 1222 "Ancho" => 284 "Tamanyo" => 143822 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "The setting of the three hearthstones on Quiriguá Stela C. Drawing by Matthew Looper" ] ] 5 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0030" "etiqueta" => "Figure 6" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr6.jpeg" "Alto" => 757 "Ancho" => 1327 "Tamanyo" => 215644 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "The drilling of new fire on Madrid Codex 51a. After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">Gates (1911)</a>" ] ] 6 => array:5 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => false "mostrarDisplay" => true "tabla" => array:2 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Dates \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Picture 1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Text 1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Picture 2 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Text 2 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">10 B’en6 Ik’2 Chuwen11 Ahaw13 Ik’4 Kimi13 Men4 Kawak \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak wears the costume of the year-bearer Mams on D. 25a-28a. He holds a rattle staff and torch in one hand and his axe (upraised) in the other. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak’s footsteps stop in the east. Drought [and] sudden fire [are the prognostications]. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak stands, holding his axe in one hand and a torch in the other. [Note that this iconography does not match that in sets 2-4.] \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Hu[b]tun Chaak [one of the Pawahtuns] enters from One Water Place. His offering to the earth-cave. [Note that this text does not match that in sets 2-4.] \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">10 Etz’nab’6 Manik’2 Kib11 Chikchan13 Manik’4 Chuwen13 Ahaw4 K’an \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak stands, holding an upraised axe in one hand, and a downward-pointing torch in the other. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">The white Chaak’s footsteps stop in the north. Rulership [and] maize [are his prognostications.] \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak emerges from the open jaws of a serpent, whose coiled body forms a cenote filled with water. He holds his lightning axe aloft. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak/the rain enters from the stone. 9 offerings of incense are his gift to the earth-cave. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">10 Ak’b’al<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">*</a>6 Eb2 Imix11 Ok13 Eb4 Kib13 Chikchan4 Muluk \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak stands, holding an upraised axe in one hand, and a downward-pointing torch in the other. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">The black Chaak’s footsteps stop in the west. Drought [and] dead person [are his prognostications.] \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak emerges from the open jaws of a serpent, whose coiled body forms a cenote filled with water. He holds his lightning axe in one hand and an incense bag in the other. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak/the rain enters from the stone. 9 offerings of incense are his gift to the earth-cave. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">10 Lamat6 Kaban2 Kimi11 Men13 Kaban4 Imix13 Ok4 Ix \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak appears wearing a K’awil headdress and holding two torches. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">The yellow Chaak’s footsteps stop in the south. Abundance of food [and] maize [are his prognostications.] \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaak emerges from the open jaws of a serpent, whose coiled body forms a cenote filled with water. 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Gabrielle Vail, Matthew G. Looper

New College of Florida and California State University

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          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The birth of the rains&#44; personified by Chaak&#44; on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span> 31b-35b&#46; After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">F&#246;rstemann &#40;1880&#41;</a></p>"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dq0005"><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><a name="p122"></a><a name="p123"></a>Andrea Stone&#8217;s work has served as an inspiration to both of us throughout our careers&#46; We dedicate this paper to her memory as an esteemed colleague and valued friend&#46;</p></span></p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Previous researchers have commented on connections between renewal ceremonies practiced in various contemporary Maya communities &#40;see&#44; e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010">Bricker&#44; 1989</a>&#44; for Zinacant&#225;n&#44; Chiapas&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">Gabriel&#44; 2009</a>&#44; for Yucat&#225;n&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020">Christenson&#44; 2001</a>&#44; for Santiago Atitl&#225;n&#44; Guatemala&#59; and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">Thompson&#44; 1999</a>&#44; for Tekanto&#44; Yucat&#225;n&#41; with those of the prehispanic period&#44; specifically as depicted in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span> &#8220;yearbearer&#8221; pages &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; those depicting the end of one year and the start of the next&#41;&#46; Our decision to compare the prehispanic yearbearer ceremonies with agricultural renewal rituals practiced by the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; living today in southern Guatemala&#44; chosen from among the dozens of ethnographic ceremonies that could have been selected&#44; stems from the close similarities we have noted in their performances and the fact that they have not been previously compared&#46; Although they are separated by great distances in time and space&#44; our analysis suggests the possibility that renewal ceremonies similar to those depicted for the yearbearer days in the Maya codices were part of a widespread tradition that encompassed much&#44; if not all&#44; of the Maya region inhabited during the Terminal Classic and Postclassic periods&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Dresden Yearbearer Rituals</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ethnohistoric sources provide a wealth of detail regarding the ritual transition from one year &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">haab&#8217;</span>&#41; to the next among the Yucatec cultures on the eve of Spanish contact&#46; This ceremonial transfer of power&#44; involving a shift in the ruling deities&#44; took place during the five days at the end of the year &#40;the nameless days&#44;<a name="p124"></a> or Wayeb&#8217;&#41;&#59; and a second series of rituals was associated with the first day or days of the new year&#44; occurring in the month of Pop &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer&#44; 1941</a>&#58; 136-153&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pages 25-28 of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">figure 1</a>&#41; have long been identified as being associated with the Wayeb&#8217; ceremonies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">Thomas&#44; 1882</a>&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125">Thompson&#44; 1972</a>&#41;&#46; There are significant points of comparison between ethnohistoric descriptions &#40;particularly those of Bishop Diego de Landa&#41; and the activities and events depicted on the Dresden pages&#46; As Landa&#8217;s discussion makes clear&#44; four of the days in the Maya <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">tzolk&#8217;in</span> calendar&#44; consisting of 20 named days paired with 13 numbers&#44; can begin the year&#46; In the system in use at the time of the Conquest&#44; these days were K&#8217;an&#44; Muluk&#44; Ix&#44; and Kawak &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer&#44; 1941</a>&#58; 136-138&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A different yearbearer system has been documented for earlier time periods&#44; however&#44; in which the transition from the old year to the new year involved the days Ik&#8217;&#44; Manik&#8217;&#44; Eb&#8217;&#44; and Kab&#8217;an&#44; or alternately&#44; Ak&#8217;b&#8217;al &#40;the day after Ik&#8217;&#41;&#44; Lamat &#40;the day after Manik&#8217;&#41;&#44; B&#8217;en &#40;the day after Eb&#8217;&#41;&#44; and Etz&#8217;nab&#8217; &#40;the day after Kab&#8217;an&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025">Edmonson&#44; 1986</a>&#41;&#46; This is the system that appears in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">Bricker and Vail&#44; 1997</a>&#41;&#46; It is recorded not only in the yearbearer almanac on pages 25-28&#44; but in other contexts as well&#44; such as the almanac &#40;also with a yearbearer function&#41; on pages 31b-35b &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">figure 3</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It takes 52 years to cycle through each of the four yearbearer days paired with the 13 numbers in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">tzolk&#8217;in</span>&#46; In other words&#44; the cycle at the time of Landa&#8217;s writing would have begun with a year 1 K&#8217;an&#44; moved next &#40;after 365 days&#41; to 2<a name="p125"></a> Muluk&#44; from there&#44; after another 365 days&#44; to 3 Ix&#44; then to 4 Kawak&#44; 5 K&#8217;an&#44; 6 Muluk &#8230; and finished with 13 Kawak&#46; Returning to 1 K&#8217;an would have completed the 52-year cycle &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">figure 2</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Dresden yearbearer pages reference two different dates on each page&#58; Eb&#8217; and B&#8217;en on D&#46; 25&#44; Kab&#8217;an and Etz&#8217;nab&#8217; on D&#46; 26&#44; Ik&#8217; and Ak&#8217;b&#8217;al on D&#46; 27&#44; and Manik&#8217; and Lamat on D&#46; 28&#46; There has been a considerable amount of discussion concerning the position of these dates in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">haab&#8217;</span> calendar &#8212;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; do they refer to the first and second days of Wayeb&#8217; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005">H&#46; Bricker and V&#46; Bricker&#44; 2011</a>&#41;&#44; or to the last day of Wayeb&#8217; and the first day of Pop &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">Taube&#44; 1988</a>&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140">Vail&#44; 2004</a>&#41;&#63; Our position is that the latter makes the most sense from a comparison of Landa&#8217;s description of the Wayeb&#8217; events with the information detailed in the codex&#46; We follow <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Vail and Hern&#225;ndez &#40;2013&#41;</a>&#44; however&#44; in suggesting that the lower register on each page serves a dual role &#8212;it marks the start of the rituals in a particular<a name="p126"></a> year&#44; thereby corresponding to the first day of Wayeb&#8217;&#44; after which one moves to the top of the next page &#40;to the last day of Wayeb&#8217;&#41;&#44; and then to the rituals associated with the beginning of Pop&#44; illustrated in the bottom two registers of the page&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To take a concrete example&#44; D&#46; 25c shows the ritual that ends the sequence that was initiated on D&#46; 28c and D&#46; 25a and b&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The ceremony involves the transfer of the deity patron of the year from the god of sustenance K&#8217;awil &#40;on D&#46; 28c and 25a-b&#41; to the sun god K&#8217;inich Ahaw&#44; who is installed as the patron of the new year on D&#46; 25c&#46; 360 days later&#44; at the start of Wayeb&#8217;&#44; this register &#40;D&#46; 25c&#41; becomes relevant again&#44; corresponding to Landa&#8217;s description of the ceremony at the edge of town in which offerings are made at an altar&#44; and a hen is sacrificed&#46; Landa&#8217;s &#8220;statue&#8221; &#40;K&#8217;inich Ahaw&#41; is then carried in a procession during which a number of dances are performed&#44; as is illustrated on D&#46; 26a&#46; The key elements in this composition include the jaguar &#40;an aspect of the sun god&#41;&#44; who is being carried by an opossum figure dressed as a ritual performer &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115">Taube&#44; 1989</a> and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145">Vail&#44; 2012</a> for a detailed discussion of this figure&#41;&#46; This takes place on the last day of Wayeb&#8217;&#44; after which the sun god is given offerings in the house of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">principal</span>&#44; which include <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pom</span> incense&#44; seven hearts&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chak wah</span>&#44; a type of ritual &#8220;bread&#8221;&#46; On the same day that the sun god&#8217;s rulership is ritually terminated&#44; the patron of the next year &#40;Itzamna&#41; is installed as the new deity patron&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Important elements in the transfer include a shift in directional affiliations from east&#44; associated with B&#8217;en years and the sun god&#44; to north&#44; associated with Etz&#8217;nab&#8217; years and Itzamna&#44; and the &#8220;deactivation&#8221; of the deity representative of the previous year which is suggested by the placing of his cape so that it covers the front of his body and by the shift in auguries to agree with those associated with the deaty in the lowe register&#44; rather than the deity picture&#46; The deities who serve as the patrons &#40;or more appropriately &#8220;burdens&#8221;&#41; of the year for all 52 years in the sequence include the sun god K&#8217;inich Ahaw and the jaguar for east years&#59; the creator Itzamna and the maize god for north years&#59; the death god for west years&#59; and the god of lightning and sustenance K&#8217;awil for south years&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Not included in Landa&#8217;s discussion is the setting up of a &#8220;tree&#8221; to mark the beginning of the new year&#46; In the Colonial period <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Books of Chilam Balam</span>&#44; trees were set up following a great food that destroyed the previous creation &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">Taube&#44; 1988</a>&#41;&#46; The depictions of these trees in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span> show them as personified stone columns &#40;perhaps stalagmites&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> dressed in a loincloth and cape&#46; At their top is vegetation and a snake&#44; suggesting that they represent the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">akantun</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ah</span>&#44; &#8216;he who&#8217;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">kaan</span>&#44; &#8216;serpent&#8217;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">tun</span>&#44; &#8216;stone&#8217;&#41; discussed by Landa&#44; where bloodletting rituals were performed during the yearbearer ceremonies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090">MacLeod&#44; 1989</a>&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer&#44; 1941</a>&#58; 141&#44; 144&#41;&#46;<a name="p127"></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On D&#46; 25c&#44; the rain deity Chaak personifies the tree &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; his head appears in place of the serpent&#41;&#46; Both Chaak and serpents are symbolic of rain and the power of lightning to germinate seeds&#44; suggesting the likelihood that the ceremonies being performed in the bottom register were agricultural and&#47;or rainmaking rituals&#46; This idea is reinforced by the burning of incense &#40;an action that is performed in ceremonies today to call the rains&#41; and the presence of possible stalagmites&#46; If the stone objects do represent stalagmites&#44; they were likely meant to symbolize a cave location&#59; as <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100">Andrea Stone &#40;1989</a>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105">2005</a>&#41; notes&#44; yearbearer and other period-ending rituals were often performed in cave contexts&#46; The presence of glyphs symbolizing cenotes in the upper registers on pages 27 and 28 is likewise suggestive of the performance of yearbearer ceremonies at watery&#44; underworld locales&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">That the Dresden yearbearer almanac was concerned with rituals to ensure adequate rainfall and thereby an abundant crop is also suggested by the hieroglyphic captions to the lower register&#44; which give prognostications for each year&#46; These vary from &#8220;woe to the maize and drought&#8221; on D&#46; 25c to &#8220;an abundance of food and drink&#8221; on D&#46; 28c&#46; The yearbearer almanac in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Madrid Codex</span> &#40;M&#46; 34-37&#41; includes similar prognostications&#44; which are displayed iconographically in addition to being included in the hieroglyphic captions&#46; For example&#44; the death god is shown in the lower left of M&#46; 34 with the head of the rain god in his hand&#44; likely signifying the death of the maize crop due to too little rain&#46;<a name="p128"></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The almanac on D&#46; 31b-35b &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">figure 3</a>&#41; also emphasizes yearbearer rituals&#44; although in this case the protagonist in each of the frames is Chaak&#46; The almanac includes four sets of dates&#44; which include both yearbearer and &#8220;Burner&#8221; &#40;fire&#41; rituals&#46; Each set of dates is associated with two separate pictures&#44; organized as follows&#46;<a name="p129"></a><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Each set of dates is separated from the next by a period of 13 years&#44; yielding a Calendar Round cycle highlighting the yearbearer dates 10 B&#8217;en &#40;1 Pop&#41;&#44; 10 Etz&#8217;nab&#8217; &#40;1 Pop&#41;&#44; 10 Ak&#8217;b&#8217;al &#40;1 Pop&#41;&#44; and 10 Lamat &#40;1 Pop&#41;&#46; B&#8217;en years are associated with the east&#59; Etz&#8217;nab&#8217; years with the north&#59; Ak&#8217;b&#8217;al years with the west&#59; and Lamat years with the south&#44; as is likewise the case on Dresden 25-28&#46; Chaak is the protagonist of all eight pictures&#44; the first of which shows him dressed as a yearbearer Mam&#46; The other pictures in the first set also portray Chaak in the guise of a yearbearer&#44; holding one or more lighted torches&#59; note&#44; however&#44; that he wears a K&#8217;awil headdress in the last picture in this set&#44; associated with the south&#46; This is significant because K&#8217;awil is the burden of south years in the yearbearer almanac on D&#46; 25-28&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The second set of pictures on D&#46; 31b-35b depicts&#44; in all but the first example&#44; Chaak emerging from the open jaws of a serpent&#44; whose body forms the walls of a cenote&#46; The hieroglyphic captions refer to Chaak &#40;or the rain&#41; entering &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; emerging&#41; from the stone&#46; This is associated with nine offerings of incense to the earth-cave&#44; or primordial place of creation&#46; The D&#46; 31b-35b almanac has a number of specific links to Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; agricultural renewal ceremonies&#44; as discussed below&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Madrid Codex</span> also details the ceremonies associated with the beginning of Pop&#46; Among the other rituals that Landa discusses are those that involve drilling new fire and ritual cleansing &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer&#44; 1941</a>&#58; 151-152&#41;&#58;<span class="elsevierStyleDisplayedQuote" id="dq0010"><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">To celebrate it &#91;the new year&#93; with more solemnity&#44; they renewed on this day all the objects which they made use of&#44; such as plates&#44; vessels&#44; stools&#44; mats and old clothes and the stuffs with which they wrapped up the idols&#8230; It was at this time that they chose officials&#44; the Chacs to assist the priest&#44; and he prepared a large number of little balls of fresh incense&#8230; so that the fasters and abstainers might burn them in honor of their idols&#8230;</p><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">New Year&#8217;s day having then arrived&#44; all the men assembled in the court of the temple&#8230; The Chacs seated themselves at the four corners&#44; and stretched from one to the other a new cord&#44; within which were to enter all those who had fasted&#44; in order to drive out the evil spirit&#8230; &#91;T&#93;he Chacs kindled the new fire&#44; and lighted the brazier&#8230; and they burned incense to the idol with new fire&#46;</p></span></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As scholars have previously noted&#44; the almanac on page 19b of the Madrid Codex &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">figure 4</a>&#41; shows a variant of the ritual described by Landa of stretching a rope around the corners of the temple courtyard &#40;in this instance&#44; the rope is being used to perform a loodletting ritual&#44; which is another ceremony that Landa describes &#91;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer&#44; 1941</a>&#58; 114&#93;&#41;&#46; Some of the elements of importance in the scene include the four ritual participants &#40;Landa&#8217;s &#8220;Chaaks&#8221;&#41;&#44; plus the &#8220;priest&#8221; &#40;Itzamna&#41;&#59; the temple or altar in the center of the scene&#44; which is painted blue&#59; and the turtle with the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">yax</span> glyph pictured next to Itzamna&#46; This can be identified as the &#8220;idol&#8221; that Landa describes being worshiped during Muluk new year ceremonies&#44; called Yax Cocah Mut &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">yax</span>&#44; &#8216;first&#8217;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">kok</span>&#44; &#8216;turtle&#8217;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ah mut</span>&#44; &#8216;omen&#8217;&#59; see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070">Knowlton and Vail&#44; 2010</a> and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Vail and Hern&#225;ndez&#44; 2013</a>&#41;&#46;<a name="p130"></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several of the deities from Madrid 19b are also pictured drilling new fire in the almanacs on Madrid pages 38b&#44; 38c&#44; and 51a&#44; including the black merchant deity &#40;God M&#41; and Itzamna&#46; As we discuss below&#44; this is one of the rituals associated with the annual renewal ceremonies of the contemporary Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; Maya&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; Renewal Rituals</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Among the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; of southeastern Guatemala and western Honduras&#44; creation symbolism is integral to annual agricultural ceremonies&#46; The information concerning these rituals derives mainly from the work of the Swiss ethnologist Raphael Girard&#44; who focuses on rites performed at Quezaltepeque in the early twentieth century &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">Girard&#44; 1949</a>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">1962</a>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">1966</a>&#41;&#46; Additional information appears in the work<a name="p131"></a> of <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Fought &#40;1972&#41;</a>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">L&#243;pez and Metz &#40;2002</a>&#58; 206-9&#41;&#44; and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Wisdom &#40;1940&#41;</a>&#46; More recent work by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich &#40;2006&#41;</a> supplements&#44; and largely confirms&#44; the data gathered by Girard&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At Quezaltepeque&#44; the confraternity of Saint Francis the Conqueror is responsible for the agrarian cult&#44; which includes rainmaking activities&#46; Ritual specialists&#44; a married couple entitled <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Padrino</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Madrina Titular</span> &#40;Godfather and Godmother in Office&#41;&#44; carry out their duties for a period of two years&#44; while five younger men called <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Adornantes</span> or &#8220;Decorators&#8221; assist the elders &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich&#44; 2006</a>&#58; 388&#41;&#46; The rituals are directed toward the fertility deities Saint Francis and the Virgin Mary&#44; whose offspring is the Maize God &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">Girard&#44; 1966</a>&#58; 22&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The agricultural cycle is structured according to a count of 260 days&#44; starting on February 8 and ending on October 25 &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#41;&#46; February 8&#44; a date associated with cosmic renewal and Creation&#44; is marked by a pilgrimage to the sacred pool of El Or&#233;gano&#44; located to the west of town&#46; This body of water is recognized as a portal to the underworld&#44; as well as a cosmic basin from which clouds take their water&#46; At this sacred place&#44; the ritual participants prepare a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span>&#44; or ritual feast for the gods&#46; Five gourds of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate</span>&#44; a ceremonial drink made from maize and cacao&#44; are placed upon a cloth spread on the ground&#46; Arranged in a quincunx&#44; these offerings are viewed as a &#8220;payment&#8221; to the spirits of the four directions to withhold wind and rain until the fields are ready for planting &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Fought&#44; 1972</a>&#58; 416&#41;&#46; After returning to the temple of Saint Francis in Quezaltepeque&#44; the elders capture malevolent winds&#44; which are stored in sealed jugs&#46; These will remain beneath the saint&#8217;s altar until the agricultural season is over&#46; A set of stones gathered previously at the El Or&#233;gano pool is arranged atop the saint&#8217;s table&#44; and four additional stones are placed at the corners of the temple&#46; Finally&#44; a feast is served on an adjacent table&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Following these Creation rituals&#44; the fields are cleared of vegetation&#44; concluding by the time of the vernal equinox &#40;March 20&#41;&#46; Activity begins again on Good Friday&#44; when&#44; following ceremonies in the church&#44; a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span> is set in the temple of Saint Francis&#46; On the next day&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">padrino</span> extinguishes the temple fire and starts a new fire&#44; from which the domestic hearths are relit&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard &#40;1962</a>&#58; 66&#41; mentions that in Chiquimula&#44; this ritual is conducted using the ancient technique of drilling&#44; in which a stick is placed in a socket on a board and then spun between the hands until sparks appear&#46; This rite announces the time when the fields should be burned&#44; thereby feeding the clouds that bring rain&#46;</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The major ritual of the rain cult &#40;the &#8220;fetching of the rainy season&#8221;&#41; starts on April 22&#44; just before the rainy season is supposed to begin &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#58; 81&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich&#44; 2006</a>&#58; 388-97&#41;&#46; A pilgrimage is made to the sacred spring that is the source of the Conquista River&#44; located near the hamlet of Azacualpa in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">municipio</span> of Quezaltepeque&#46; This spring is associated with the crucifixion of Christ and the transformation of his flowing blood into the primordial rain &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#58; 225&#41;&#46; It is also the abode of the Noh Chih Chan&#44; a great serpent that guards the water &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#58; 95&#41;&#46; Sacrificial offerings encourage this deity<a name="p132"></a> to release the moisture that transforms into clouds that bring rain to the fields&#46; In the clearing near the spring&#44; the Padrino dedicates a cross that is inscribed with his name adjacent to the crosses of his predecessors&#46; All crosses are then adorned with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">conte</span> leaves&#44; and candles are lit before them&#46; Meanwhile&#44; at the temple of Saint Francis&#44; the women prepare food &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">tamalitos</span>&#41; to feed pilgrims to the shrine and replace the dry altar adornments with fresh greenery &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">conte</span> leaves and green coconuts&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The next day &#40;April 23&#41;&#44; the women prepare additional ceremonial foods&#44; including <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate&#44; tamales</span>&#44; bean <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">empanadas</span>&#44; and maize <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">tortillas</span>&#46; In the evening&#44; a procession departs for the sacred spring&#46; According to <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard &#40;1962</a>&#58; 86&#41;&#44; this locale represents the underworld&#59; and on this night&#44; the men recite prayers in order to open a portal between the two mountains that block its entrance&#46; Upon reaching the spring late at night&#44; a ritual meal is spread on the ground and consumed by the specialists&#46; The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">padrinos</span> pray&#44; burn incense&#44; and then sacrifice a young female turkey to the Noh Chih Chan by drowning&#46; The men allow the water current to suck the bird&#8217;s body into the pool&#46; Afterward&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate</span> is poured into the spring&#44; followed by the blood of a male turkey &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich&#44; 2006</a>&#58; 397&#41;&#46; When Girard made his observations&#44; these offerings were placed in a pit in the earth rather than the sacred spring itself&#44; from which drinking water was being drawn &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#58; 92-3&#44; 95&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On April 24&#44; the altar of Saint Francis is fully adorned&#44; and a canoe containing aquatic animals and water from the sacred spring is placed beneath it&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard &#40;1962</a>&#58; 110-111&#41; states that this canoe symbolizes the navel or heart of the earth and is thus equivalent to the pit dug near the sacred spring&#46; Its placement beneath the altar of Saint Francis associates this location with the underworld&#46; At midnight&#44; a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span> dedicated to the rain gods is set in the temple&#46; The next night&#44; and each night afterward until regular rainfall commences&#44; the interior of the temple is sprinkled with water in order to induce the gods to send rain to the fields &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard 1962</a>&#58; 112&#41;&#46; Following this complex ritual sequence&#44; men initiate the planting of the fields&#44; accompanied by additional sacrifices of birds and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate</span> in holes dug in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">milpa</span> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Wisdom&#44; 1940</a>&#58; 441-444&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The rainy season is officially inaugurated on April 30-May 1 by the zenith passage of the sun&#46; According to <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard &#40;1962</a>&#58; 79&#44; 148-149&#41;&#44; the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; conceive this event as the impregnation of the earth by the &#8220;fertility god&#8221; when he passes through the zenith at noon&#46; To mark this date&#44; they observe noontime shadows as well as astral phenomena&#44; including significant positions of Orion&#44; the &#8220;Cross of May&#8221;&#44; and the Pleiades &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Fought&#44; 1972</a>&#58; 59&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#58; 78&#44; 147&#41;&#46; Shortly afterwards&#44; on May 2&#44; a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span> is set in the temple to Saint Francis&#46; This is repeated every nine nights through the end of the rainy season&#46; Each time&#44; the greenery of the altar is refreshed&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate</span> is poured to the four corners of the temple patio and under the altar&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similar ceremonies of rainmaking and offerings to the earth may also occur later in the agricultural season&#44; in association with the second planting of the<a name="p133"></a><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">milpa</span>&#46; This occurs around August 12 or 13&#44; marked by the second solar zenith passage&#46; However&#44; these ceremonies are on a smaller scale than those held on the first zenith passage of the sun &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Girard&#44; 1962</a>&#58; 253-254&#41;&#46; The rainy season rites conclude on October 25 with the &#8220;turning of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span>&#44;&#8221; when the ritual vessels are emptied&#44; washed&#44; and inverted&#44; and the altar adornments are replaced with red&#44; yellow and purple flowers&#44; symbolizing the dry season&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In summary&#44; the contemporary Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; rain cult involves the coordinated activities of ritual specialists at locations both at the cult temple and in the wilderness&#46; Rites emphasize the use of sympathetic magic&#44; such as scattering water and pouring <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate</span> or blood&#44; as well as ritualized exchange involving the offering of candles&#44; incense&#44; lavish meals&#44; and sacrificial birds&#46; The main purpose of these rites is to provide sustenance to the rain gods&#46; In exchange&#44; the gods are expected to supply regular rainfall during the agricultural season&#46; The overall schedule for these rites may be recapitulated as follows&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Feb&#46; 8&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span> at sacred pool&#59; capturing of winds in temple&#59; stones set in temple &#40;Creation&#41;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Saturday of Holy Week&#58; new fire drilled&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">April 22&#58; dedication of inscribed cross&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">April 23&#58; ritual meal at sacred spring&#44; sacrifice of fowl and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilate</span> at spring&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">April 24&#58; altar fully adorned&#59; temple watered&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">April 30-May 1&#58; first zenith passage of the sun&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">May 2<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#58; mesa</span> set in temple to be renewed every nine days&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">October 25&#58; &#8220;turning of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span>&#8221;&#44; closing the rainy season rites&#46;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; agricultural ritual cycle emphasizes specific elements which are also found among the Yucatec Maya&#46; The Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; extensively evoke foundation events&#44; initially through the quincunx of stones that is erected on the altar in the Saint Francis temple and the four stones that are set at the temple&#8217;s corners&#46; The same pattern is later refected in the arrangement of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesas</span> &#40;ritual meals&#41; at sacred locales in the landscape&#44; particularly at the spring that is the source of the Conquista River&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acts of sacrifice are fundamental to the aims of the ritual cycle&#46; These mainly take the form of food offerings placed on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesas</span> in the temple of Saint Francis&#44; as well as meals prepared at the sacred spring&#46; Incense and candles are also offered&#46; Most dramatic is the offering of male and female turkeys at the sacred spring&#46;</p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual cycle involves complex and repeated petitions to deities of rain and the earth&#46; Sacrifices to the serpent Noh Chih Chan are made at the sacred spring&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Mesas</span> and prayers are offered to the rain gods at the El Or&#233;gano pool and in the temple of Saint Francis throughout the growing season&#46; In addition&#44; liquid offerings to the spirit of the earth are poured into pits dug in fields or the sacred spring&#46; The vertical movement of these offerings replicates the cosmic act of impregnation of the earth by the sun as well as the descent of rain to the<a name="p134"></a> earth&#46; The cacao drinks that are used extensively in these rituals are specifically associated with the cold&#44; moist rainy season &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075">Kufer and Heinrich&#44; 2006</a>&#58; 401-405&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; agricultural rituals also emphasize sacred watery places&#46; These include the El Or&#233;gano pool and the sacred spring&#44; believed to be rainwater basins and sacred underworld locations&#46; The ritualists attempt to transform the temple of Saint Francis into a realm attractive to the rain deities by sprinkling it with sacred water and by maintaining a water-filled canoe placed beneath the altar&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Comparisons</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A number of specific parallels can be noted between the ceremonies documented among the contemporary Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; of Quezaltepeque and those depicted in the Maya codices and described by Diego de Landa &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Tozzer&#44; 1941</a>&#41;&#46; The first set of comparisons involves the almanac on Dresden pages 31b-35b&#44; which has links to the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span> celebrated at the sacred pool and the drilling of new fire&#46; Comparisons can be made between the four paired frames showing Chaak emerging from a cenote &#8212;and Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; rituals at the sacred spring of El Or&#233;gano&#44; which also involve the setting of four stones in the temple&#46; Among the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217;&#44; these events take place on February 8 and are undertaken to replicate the original events of creation and ensure cosmic renewal&#46; The pool where the rituals take place is believed to be a portal to the underworld&#44; much as is true of the serpent cenotes in the Dresden almanac&#59; it likewise serves as a place of evaporation from which clouds derive their water&#46; This function is made explicit in the Dresden almanac by the portrayal of Chaak rising from the cenote&#47;serpent stone with his upraised axe&#46; His presence here serves to symbolize the waters that will rise into the sky and fall as rain during the upcoming rainy season&#46;</p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is also significant that the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual involves the placement of a set of stones from the sacred pool on the saint&#8217;s altar&#44; and the setting of four stones at the corners of the temple&#46; These can be compared to the &#8220;stones&#8221; pictured and described in the text of the Dresden almanac&#44; which likewise have a connection with the stones set at the time of creation according to Classic period Maya texts such as Quirigu&#225; Stela C &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">figure 5</a>&#41;&#46; They can also be compared to the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ah kaan tun</span>&#44; or serpent stones&#44; pictured on Dresden 25c-28c&#44; which serve as the focal point for the rituals undertaken by the deities of the incoming year&#46; This provides another link among these objects&#44; Chaak&#44; and ceremonies to call the rains&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Various explanations have been offered for the frames that show Chaak holding torches on D&#46; 31b-35b&#44; including their relationship to a set of rituals involving the lighting and extinguishing of fres by the &#8220;Burners&#8221; &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Vail and Hern&#225;ndez&#44; 2013</a>&#41;&#46; One possibility that has not been previously considered is that the torches held by Chaak relate to the drilling of new fire associated with agricultural renewal rituals&#44; as documented among the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; &#40;see previous discussion&#41;&#46; After new fire was drilled &#40;as&#44; for example&#44; on Madrid 51a &#91;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">figure 6</a>&#93;&#41;&#44; torches were lit so they could be used to reignite the fres at each of the temples and houses&#46;<a name="p135"></a><a name="p136"></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A number of other specific inferences can be made by comparing the events associated with late April among the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; and the Dresden yearbearer pages&#44; although the seasonality of the two sets of rituals differs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Nevertheless both were clearly developed with the object of petitioning the rain deities and ensuring a bountiful harvest&#44; suggesting that a comparison of specific details is warrented&#46;</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the Quezaltepeque area&#44; April 22 is the day associated with &#8220;fetching the rainy season&#8221;&#59; specific events include sacrificial offerings to the serpent Noh Chih Chan to encourage him to feed the rain clouds&#44; the dedication of the cross and its adorning with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">conte</span> leaves&#44; and the lighting of candles before the crosses&#46; The lower register of the Dresden yearbearer almanac has a number of specific parallels to these events&#44; including the emphasis on Chaak and serpents&#44; which can be associated with the Noh Chih Chan and rainmaking ceremonies&#46; Likewise&#44; the dedication of the cross in the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual can be compared to the setting up of the &#8220;tree&#8221; in the Dresden almanac&#44; which is decorated with leaves &#40;like the crosses&#41;&#46; Instead of burning candles before the trees&#44; however&#44; the burning of incense is portrayed&#46;</p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On the following day in the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ceremony&#44; a ritual meal is consumed at the spring &#40;note the food offerings on Dresden 25c-28c&#41;&#44; incense is burned&#44; and a young female turkey is sacrificed to the Noh Chih Chan&#46; In the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual&#44; the turkey is sacrificed by drowning&#44; whereas decapitation is the method depicted in the Dresden almanac&#46; The canoe that is set up under the altar on April 24 in the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual may have parallels with the cenote imagery pictured in the upper register on pages 27 and 28 of the Dresden almanac&#46; Like the canoe containing sacred water from the spring&#44; cenotes also symbolize the &#8220;navel&#8221; or heart of the earth and provide a means of accessing the underworld&#46; Moreover&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mesa</span> to the rain gods set in the temple at midnight in the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual calls to mind the offerings of food placed before the deities of the outgoing year in their temples in the middle register of the Dresden almanac&#46;</p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; ritual incorporates the beginning of the rainy season&#44; which is associated with the zenith passage of the sun on April 30&#46; This event is not represented in the Dresden yearbearer almanac&#44; given its focus on events falling later in the year&#46;</p><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Madrid yearbearer almanac&#44; like that in the Dresden Codex&#44; refers to dates in August and July in the tropical year &#40;because the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">haab&#8217;</span> is &#46;2422 days shorter than the tropical year&#44; yearbearer dates recessed by approximately one day every four years over the course of the tropical year&#41;&#46; However&#44; unlike the Dresden almanac&#44; it appears to show a range of activities that fall in different months<a name="p137"></a> of the year&#44; as suggested by the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">haab&#8217;</span> dates scattered among the iconography &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">Hern&#225;ndez and Bricker&#44; 2004</a>&#41;&#46; Activities that are important include planting &#40;in Yucat&#225;n&#44; initial planting of the maize fields would have occurred in late May or early June&#44; with a re-planting taking place several weeks later&#41;&#44; feasting&#44; the lighting of fres&#44; and bloodletting rituals&#46; Each of these activities&#44; as previously noted&#44; has correlates with the agricultural renewal ceremonies of the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217;&#46; The planting of seeds using a digging stick on M&#46; 34a-37a recalls the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; belief that the zenith passage of the sun involves the impregnation of the earth by a fertility god during the sun&#8217;s noontime zenith transit&#46; Additionally&#44; the hieroglyphic texts accompanying the Madrid yearbearer almanac include references to the four color-directional clouds&#44; which evoke the sacrifices made to the Noh Chih Chan so that they would transform into the rain clouds&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Final considerations</span><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Like contemporary Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; agricultural renewal ceremonies&#44; the prehispanic renewal rituals&#44; celebrated at the transition from one year to the next&#44; also involved the movement of ritual specialists from temple locations within the community to sacred&#44; watery places outside the confines of the community&#46; Both sets of rituals incorporate sympathetic magic&#44; such as the scattering and burning of incense to induce the rains&#44; and are characterized by similar types of offerings including incense&#44; food and drink&#44; and sacrificial birds&#46; For the prehispanic Maya as well as the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217;&#44; the main purpose of these rites involved providing sustenance to the rain gods&#44; who are expected in return to supply plentiful rainfall to ensure the success of the maize and other crops&#46;</p><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although substantial differences characterize contemporary Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; rituals of agricultural renewal and the yearbearer rituals undertaken by the prehispanic Maya&#44; what is evident is that the two share a complex of activities and symbols that can be recognized as structurally equivalent despite the many changes that have occurred during the more than 500 years since the Spanish first set foot on the soil of Mesoamerica&#46;<a name="p138"></a></p></span></span>"
    "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [
      "secciones" => array:10 [
        0 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "xres505771"
          "titulo" => "Abstract"
          "secciones" => array:1 [
            0 => array:1 [
              "identificador" => "abst0005"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        1 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526892"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
        ]
        2 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "xres505772"
          "titulo" => "Resumen"
          "secciones" => array:1 [
            0 => array:1 [
              "identificador" => "abst0010"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        3 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526891"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
        ]
        4 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "Introduction"
        ]
        5 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0010"
          "titulo" => "Dresden Yearbearer Rituals"
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; Renewal Rituals"
        ]
        7 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Comparisons"
        ]
        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0025"
          "titulo" => "Final considerations"
        ]
        9 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "References"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2013-11-25"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2014-01-18"
    "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526892"
          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Yucatec Maya"
            1 => "Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; Maya"
            2 => "yearbearer rituals"
            3 => "agricultural rituals"
            4 => "world renewal ceremonies"
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "es" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec526891"
          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "maya yucateco"
            1 => "ch&#8217;orti&#8217;"
            2 => "rituales de portador del a&#241;o"
            3 => "ritos agr&#237;colas"
            4 => "ceremonias de renovaci&#243;n del mundo"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "tieneResumen" => true
    "resumen" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Archaeological&#44; epigraphic&#44; and ethnohistoric studies indicate that world renewal rituals were an important feature of prehispanic Maya society and continue to play a seminal role in indigenous communities throughout the Maya area today&#46; Our discussion examines two examples of the multitude of such rituals that were performed to recreate the world by replicating the actions undertaken by the primordial deities at the beginning of the present creation&#46; The first involves ceremonies performed by the Yucatec Maya during the Postclassic period &#40;13<span class="elsevierStyleSup">th</span> through 15<span class="elsevierStyleSup">th</span> centuries&#41; to ritually terminate the old year and begin anew by establishing a &#8220;tree&#8221; to mark the trees set up in the four quadrants at the creation of the present world&#44; as documented in the prehispanic Maya codices and the colonial period <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Books of Chilam Balam</span>&#44; written by indigenous scribes in the alphabetic script introduced by the Spanish friars in the 16<span class="elsevierStyleSup">th</span> century&#46; The second involves Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; speakers living in southern Guatemala today&#44; who perform similar rituals that involve a series of ceremonies undertaken over the course of the rainy season to ensure agricultural fertility&#46; Both ritual complexes involve foundation events&#44; acts of sacrifice&#44; petitions to the rain and earth deities&#44; and an emphasis on sacred watery places&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los estudios arqueol&#243;gicos epigr&#225;ficos y etnohist&#243;ricos indican que los rituales de renovaci&#243;n del mundo constituyeron un rasgo importante de la sociedad maya prehisp&#225;nica y contin&#250;an desempe&#241;ando un papel fundamental en las comunidades mayas actuales&#46; Aqu&#237; examinaremos dos ejemplos de tales rituales realizados para recrear el mundo replicando las acciones de las deidades primordiales al inicio de la creaci&#243;n actual&#46; El primero involucra las ceremonias realizadas por los mayas yucatecos del periodo Poscl&#225;sico&#44; para terminar el a&#241;o viejo e iniciar el nuevo estableciendo un &#8220;&#225;rbol&#8221; para evocar aquellos &#225;rboles erigidos en los cuatro cuadrantes al inicio del mundo presente&#44; tal y como est&#225; documentado en los c&#243;dices mayas prehisp&#225;nicos y en los <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Libros del Chilam Balam</span> del per&#237;odo colonial&#44; escritos por ind&#237;genas con la escritura alfab&#233;tica introducida por los frailes espa&#241;oles en el siglo <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">xvi</span>&#46; El segundo involucra a los hablantes de ch&#8217;orti del sur de Guatemala que ejecutan en la actualidad rituales similares&#44; basados en una serie de ceremonias realizadas durante la temporada de lluvias para asegurar la fertilidad agr&#237;cola&#46; Ambos complejos rituales incluyen eventos de fundaci&#243;n&#44; sacrificio&#44; peticiones a las deidades de la lluvia y un &#233;nfasis en lugares sagrados acuosos&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
    ]
    "NotaPie" => array:3 [
      0 => array:3 [
        "etiqueta" => "1"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">We follow Thompson &#40;1972&#58; 90&#41; in suggesting that the pictures and hieroglyphic captions on pages 26c and 28c were transposed by the scribe&#46; In the discussion that follows&#44; we associate page 26c with Itzamna and the north and page 28c with K&#8217;awil and the south&#46;</p>"
        "identificador" => "fn0005"
      ]
      1 => array:3 [
        "etiqueta" => "2"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0010">Note that they are marked with the &#8220;Kawak&#8221; or &#8216;stone&#8217; glyph &#40;T528&#41;&#46;</p>"
        "identificador" => "fn0010"
      ]
      2 => array:3 [
        "etiqueta" => "3"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0020">Yearbearer ceremonies like those depicted in the Dresden almanac fell in mid-August during the early 15<span class="elsevierStyleSup">th</span> century&#46; In this respect&#44; their timing corresponds much more closely with the rituals performed in conjunction with the second zenith passage &#40;i&#46;e&#46; on August 12-13&#41; in the Ch&#8217;orti&#8217; area&#46; A detailed comparison however&#44; suggests a closer correspondence between the events depicted on Dresden 25-28 and the April rituals&#44; as discussed below&#46;</p>"
        "identificador" => "fn0015"
      ]
    ]
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      0 => array:7 [
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        "etiqueta" => "Figure 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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            "Alto" => 911
            "Ancho" => 1614
            "Tamanyo" => 367745
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Yearbearer ceremonies on pages 25-28 of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span>&#46; After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">F&#246;rstemann &#40;1880&#41;</a></p>"
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      ]
      1 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "fig0010"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 2"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg"
            "Alto" => 1310
            "Ancho" => 1409
            "Tamanyo" => 423271
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        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The calendar round almanac on pages 75-76 of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Madrid Codex</span>&#46; After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">Gates &#40;1911&#41;</a></p>"
        ]
      ]
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        "etiqueta" => "Figure 3"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The birth of the rains&#44; personified by Chaak&#44; on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dresden Codex</span> 31b-35b&#46; After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">F&#246;rstemann &#40;1880&#41;</a></p>"
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Renewal rituals associated with 4 Ahaw on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Madrid Codex</span> 19b&#46; After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095">De Rosny &#40;1883&#41;</a></p>"
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The setting of the three hearthstones on Quirigu&#225; Stela C&#46; Drawing by Matthew Looper</p>"
        ]
      ]
      5 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "fig0030"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 6"
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        "mostrarFloat" => true
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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            "imagen" => "gr6.jpeg"
            "Alto" => 757
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            "Tamanyo" => 215644
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The drilling of new fire on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Madrid Codex</span> 51a&#46; After <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">Gates &#40;1911&#41;</a></p>"
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      ]
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        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
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                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Dates&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Picture 1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Text 1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Picture 2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Text 2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">10 B&#8217;en</span>6 Ik&#8217;2 Chuwen<span class="elsevierStyleBold">11 Ahaw</span>13 Ik&#8217;4 Kimi13 Men4 Kawak&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak wears the costume of the year-bearer Mams on D&#46; 25a-28a&#46; He holds a rattle staff and torch in one hand and his axe &#40;upraised&#41; in the other&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak&#8217;s footsteps stop in the east&#46; Drought &#91;and&#93; sudden fire &#91;are the prognostications&#93;&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak stands&#44; holding his axe in one hand and a torch in the other&#46; &#91;Note that this iconography does not match that in sets 2-4&#46;&#93;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Hu&#91;b&#93;tun Chaak &#91;one of the Pawahtuns&#93; enters from One Water Place&#46; His offering to the earth-cave&#46; &#91;Note that this text does not match that in sets 2-4&#46;&#93;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">10 Etz&#8217;nab&#8217;</span>6 Manik&#8217;2 Kib<span class="elsevierStyleBold">11 Chikchan</span>13 Manik&#8217;4 Chuwen13 Ahaw4 K&#8217;an&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak stands&#44; holding an upraised axe in one hand&#44; and a downward-pointing torch in the other&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">The white Chaak&#8217;s footsteps stop in the north&#46; Rulership &#91;and&#93; maize &#91;are his prognostications&#46;&#93;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak emerges from the open jaws of a serpent&#44; whose coiled body forms a cenote filled with water&#46; He holds his lightning axe aloft&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak&#47;the rain enters from the stone&#46; 9 offerings of incense are his gift to the earth-cave&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">10 Ak&#8217;b&#8217;al</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">&#42;</a>6 Eb2 Imix<span class="elsevierStyleBold">11 Ok</span>13 Eb4 Kib13 Chikchan4 Muluk&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak stands&#44; holding an upraised axe in one hand&#44; and a downward-pointing torch in the other&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">The black Chaak&#8217;s footsteps stop in the west&#46; Drought &#91;and&#93; dead person &#91;are his prognostications&#46;&#93;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak emerges from the open jaws of a serpent&#44; whose coiled body forms a cenote filled with water&#46; He holds his lightning axe in one hand and an incense bag in the other&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak&#47;the rain enters from the stone&#46; 9 offerings of incense are his gift to the earth-cave&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">10 Lamat</span>6 Kaban2 Kimi<span class="elsevierStyleBold">11 Men</span>13 Kaban4 Imix13 Ok4 Ix&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak appears wearing a K&#8217;awil headdress and holding two torches&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">The yellow Chaak&#8217;s footsteps stop in the south&#46; Abundance of food &#91;and&#93; maize &#91;are his prognostications&#46;&#93;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak emerges from the open jaws of a serpent&#44; whose coiled body forms a cenote filled with water&#46; He holds his lightning axe in one hand and an incense bag in the other&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaak&#47;the rain enters from the stone&#46; 9 offerings of incense are his gift to the earth-cave&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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              "identificador" => "tblfn0005"
              "etiqueta" => "&#42;"
              "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0015">The coefficient of 11 given in the almanac is a scribal error&#46;</p>"
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "References"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "bibs0005"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:31 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0005"
              "etiqueta" => "Bricker and Bricker&#44; 2011"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:2 [
                            0 => "Bricker Harvey M&#46;"
                            1 => "Victoria R&#46; Bricker"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Libro" => array:4 [
                        "titulo" => "Astronomy in the Maya Codices"
                        "fecha" => "2011"
                        "editorial" => "American Philosophical Society &#40;Memoirs&#44; 265&#41;"
                        "editorialLocalizacion" => "Philadelphia"
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0010"
              "etiqueta" => "Bricker&#44; 1989"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "The Calendrical Meaning of Ritual among the Maya"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "Bricker Victoria R&#46;"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "LibroEditado" => array:4 [
                        "titulo" => "Ethnographic Encounters in Southern Mesoamerica&#58; Essays in Honor of Evon Zartman Vogt Jr&#46;"
                        "paginaInicial" => "231"
                        "paginaFinal" => "249"
                        "serieFecha" => "1989"
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            2 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0015"
              "etiqueta" => "Bricker and Vail&#44; 1997"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:1 [
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "LibroEditado" => array:2 [
                        "titulo" => "Papers on the Madrid Codex"
                        "serieFecha" => "1997"
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
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Article information

ISSN: 01852574
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/S0185-2574(15)30004-6

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Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	11	1	12
2024 October	70	9	79
2024 September	86	15	101
2024 August	51	12	63
2024 July	38	4	42
2024 June	42	8	50
2024 May	31	9	40
2024 April	34	4	38
2024 March	69	6	75
2024 February	46	14	60
2024 January	63	19	82
2023 December	70	25	95
2023 November	46	17	63
2023 October	45	15	60
2023 September	32	11	43
2023 August	32	9	41
2023 July	38	9	47
2023 June	42	9	51
2023 May	56	6	62
2023 April	42	17	59
2023 March	54	15	69
2023 February	53	17	70
2023 January	45	10	55
2022 December	62	17	79
2022 November	66	17	83
2022 October	56	13	69
2022 September	59	13	72
2022 August	52	13	65
2022 July	49	14	63
2022 June	63	14	77
2022 May	65	10	75
2022 April	102	16	118
2022 March	165	17	182
2022 February	159	10	169
2022 January	126	11	137
2021 December	88	22	110
2021 November	109	16	125
2021 October	74	12	86
2021 September	78	19	97
2021 August	78	13	91
2021 July	59	12	71
2021 June	43	11	54
2021 May	57	8	65
2021 April	209	27	236
2021 March	90	14	104
2021 February	51	16	67
2021 January	63	12	75
2020 December	39	16	55
2020 November	42	9	51
2020 October	19	12	31
2020 September	34	13	47
2020 August	40	16	56
2020 July	27	14	41
2020 June	33	11	44
2020 May	30	5	35
2020 April	36	15	51
2020 March	56	5	61
2020 February	46	5	51
2020 January	40	11	51
2019 December	35	7	42
2019 November	37	7	44
2019 October	41	3	44
2019 September	47	10	57
2019 August	31	13	44
2019 July	37	7	44
2019 June	76	25	101
2019 May	102	31	133
2019 April	85	7	92
2019 March	29	3	32
2019 February	31	12	43
2019 January	27	4	31
2018 December	20	10	30
2018 November	29	2	31
2018 October	52	14	66
2018 September	16	7	23
2018 August	32	5	37
2018 July	18	2	20
2018 June	18	2	20
2018 May	16	4	20
2018 April	28	1	29
2018 March	24	0	24
2018 February	15	0	15
2018 January	11	0	11
2017 December	17	1	18
2017 November	7	1	8
2017 October	17	8	25
2017 September	17	5	22
2017 August	6	4	10
2017 July	22	3	25
2017 June	63	1	64
2017 May	23	4	27
2017 April	22	77	99
2017 March	15	29	44
2017 February	27	2	29
2017 January	20	0	20
2016 December	27	8	35
2016 November	52	8	60
2016 October	68	11	79
2016 September	90	1	91
2016 August	30	4	34
2016 July	32	2	34
2016 June	39	9	48
2016 May	25	13	38
2016 April	27	11	38
2016 March	28	12	40
2016 February	38	11	49
2016 January	26	14	40
2015 December	42	15	57
2015 November	41	10	51
2015 October	68	22	90
2015 September	27	6	33
2015 August	45	16	61
2015 July	12	7	19
2015 June	9	9	18
2015 May	9	7	16
2015 April	5	3	8

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