Review article
Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures
Alucinógenos en las culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas
F.J. Carod-Artal
Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Virgen de la Luz, Cuenca, Spain
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Arrows indicate the links between clinical syndromes and underlying disease, while continuous lines show the most robust associations. The most frequent histopathological subtype is listed for each syndrome. FTD: frontotemporal dementia; FTLD: frontotemporal lobar degeneration; PSPS: progressive supranuclear palsy syndrome; CBS: corticobasal syndrome; PNFA: progressive nonfluent aphasia; bv-FTD: behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia; SD: semantic dementia; FTD-MND: frontotemporal dementia associated with motor neuron disease; PSP: progressive supranuclear palsy; CBD: corticobasal degeneration; PiD: Pick disease; MAPT: microtubule associated protein tau; FUS: fused-in sarcoma protein; PGRN: progranulin; VCP: valosin containing protein; TARDBP: TAR DNA-binding protein 43; CHMP2B: charged multivesicular body protein 2B. FTLD-TDP subtypes 1-3 are designated according to Mackenzie's classification.</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "M. 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"apellidos" => "Torricelli" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "Traduccion" => array:1 [ "es" => array:9 [ "pii" => "S0213485312000114" "doi" => "10.1016/j.nrl.2011.12.010" "estado" => "S300" "subdocumento" => "" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => true "ES2" => true "LATM" => true ] "gratuito" => true "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0213485312000114?idApp=UINPBA00004N" ] ] "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2173580814001424?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/21735808/0000003000000001/v2_201706020304/S2173580814001424/v2_201706020304/en/main.assets" ] "en" => array:20 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Review article</span>" "titulo" => "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "42" "paginaFinal" => "49" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "autoresLista" => "F.J. Carod-Artal" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "F.J." "apellidos" => "Carod-Artal" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "fjcarod-artal@hotmail.com" ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Virgen de la Luz, Cuenca, Spain" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Alucinógenos en las culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1285 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 213754 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Fray Bernardino de Sahagún</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hallucinogens are substances that when ingested in non-toxic doses can provoke altered states of consciousness and induce unreal perceptions or distortions of the surroundings. Throughout history, numerous societies have isolated substances with hallucinogenic properties from fungus, plant, and animal sources. From an ethnobotanist's and anthropologist's viewpoint, the American continents provide excellent opportunities for studying a wide array of natural hallucinogens.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The diverse civilisations that flourished in Mesoamerica displayed great knowledge and skill in their use of numerous hallucinogens. Archaeological, ethnohistorical, and ethnographic evidence show that throughout history, pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures used hallucinogenic substances in magical, therapeutic, and religious rituals.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2,3</span></a> These substances are considered entheogens since they were used to promote mysticism and communication with divine powers. The purpose of using these substances was to enter a trance and achieve greater enlightenment and open-mindedness. The altered state of consciousness the user aimed to reach was characterised by temporal and spatial disorientation, a sensation of ecstasy and inner peace, hallucinations of vivid colours, tendency towards introspection, and an impression of being one with nature and with the gods.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mesoamerican myths and religions emphasise the role of the priest or shaman as a mediator between the physical and the spiritual worlds, and this situation promoted the use of entheogens in religious ceremonies and prophecy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> Shamans, intermediaries between the natural and supernatural realms, would consume numerous psychoactive substances to undertake their shamanic journeys. This would begin when the shaman's spirit left the natural world and continued to wander the supernatural world, making contact with the spirits in order to acquire knowledge about plants, diagnose diseases, or ensure a good harvest or rainy season, before finally returning to his body in the physical world.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Both Mesoamerican and Andean iconography offer numerous depictions of the shamanic journey and trance state induced by hallucinogens.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Furthermore, psychoactive plants were believed to be associated with certain gods, and they had voices that the shaman was expected to convey or adopt after partaking.</p><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Inebriation: balché and the Mayan ritual enemas</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Drugs, drinks, and ritual enemas were used in the sacred ceremonies practised all across Mesoamerica. Using or combining different psychoactive plants with intoxicating elixirs was also common. Consumption of many of these substances dates back to the Olmec era (1200-400 BCE). However, researchers are better informed about Mayan and Aztec societies based on Mayan religious texts (the Popol Vuh) and the first outside accounts of Aztec culture from the 16th century.</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Maya (250 BCE-900 AD)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> consumed an intoxicating beverage called <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">balché</span>, which is an infusion of the bark of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Lonchocarpus longistylus</span> mixed with honey from bees fed on a type of morning glory with a high ergine content. Inebriation was connected with the practice of divination, a ritual intended to enable direct communication with the spirits in order to predict the future or understand events that would otherwise be incomprehensible, including illnesses, shifts in fortune, adverse meteorological events, poor harvests, and the outcomes of combats or wars. Since the alcoholic content of balché seemed to have been quite low, it had to be ingested in large quantities in order to provoke an intoxicating effect. During ceremonies, participants’ vomit was collected in bags that were then hung around their necks. Balché has survived the test of time, and the Maya in the Mexican state of Yucatán still consume it.</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pulque, or ‘chi’ to the Maya, was another alcoholic drink made by fermenting the sap of the maguey plant. Different ceramic works from the Mayan classic period produced vessels marked with the glyph ‘chi’. References to the use of hallucinogenic drinks also appear in the Dresden, Borgia, Florentine, and Borbonicus codices. The Codex Vindobonensis shows richly dressed figures drinking pulque. The mural known as ‘The Drinkers’ in Cholula, Puebla (Mexico), shows male and female figures drinking pulque in a group ceremony.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Those who drank balché would also take other psychoactive substances, smoke wild Mesoamerican tobacco (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nicotiana rustica</span>), and perform ritual enemas. Tobacco was consumed smoked, inhaled, or chewed; it was also mixed with the leaves of datura (tolohuaxihuitl; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Datura stramonium</span>) or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Brugmansia</span> spp. The high psychoactive alkaloid content of these plants intensified the entheogenic effect.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Wild tobacco, which the Maya called <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">piziet</span>, also played a part in many sacred ceremonies. The Temple of the Cross in Palenque, Chiapas, houses a stela depicting God G smoking tobacco (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>). In his historical treatise <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Historia de Guatemala o Recordación florida</span>, Francisco Fuentes y Guzmán mentions different uses of tobacco amongst the Maya in the 16th century.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">“They also adored and attributed divine power to the herb they call piziet, which is tobacco; their custom is to imbibe the smoke, and thus inebriated, they will invoke the devil to learn about the future and pass on the pleas and wishes commended to them by others. We understand that this practice of augury was reserved for the priests of their demonic and accursed idols.”</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Some substances were used to provide visions and to decrease pain inflicted by self-sacrifice, a typical practice in Mayan culture. For example, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Naab</span>, a white lotus or water lily found in the lakes and rivers of Guatemala (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nymphaea ampla</span>), was smoked or eaten raw for the psychoactive properties of its bulbs and roots. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Naab</span> makes frequent appearances in Maya iconography, and it is usually associated with death, the underworld gods, and the afterlife.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Mayan priests (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">chilam</span>) practised divining and entered ecstatic states to communicate with the gods and forces of nature, or to transform themselves into personifications of corn or rain. The flower of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N. ampla</span> became a symbol of high lineage and it frequently appears on the headdresses of the Maya elite. This plant was regarded as a link to fertility because it provided food for fish, while water in which it grew made the earth fertile for growing corn.</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Maya used enemas to administer certain substances in order to attain more intense trance states more quickly. Researchers have discovered Mayan classic-period sculpture and ceramics depicting scenes in which hallucinogenic enemas were used in rituals; some figures are shown vomiting while others receive enemas.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> There are also anthropomorphic terracotta figures demonstrating the self-administration of psychoactive enemas. The iconography on many ceramic vessels from the Mayan late classic period shows some figures chatting as they received enemas (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>), and pots overflowing with foam from a fermented drink.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Various descriptions from the colonial period (such as the Florentine Codex) describe how enemas were used to combat illness and discomfort of the digestive tract. Enema use was also associated with rites or ceremonies in which participants tried to reach a state of ecstasy through inebriation. Enemas containing alcohol, sometimes mixed with other psychoactive substances, were applied using syringes made of gourd and clay. The god Akan, whom Spanish writers referred to as the Mayan Bacchus, watched over the ritual enemas and bacchanalia.</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Many ceremonies were held underground, in dark caves, which were considered points of access to the underworld. This was thought to intensify the inner vision provided by ingesting psychostimulants and hallucinogens. Furthermore, prolonged fasting, rhythmic music, and dancing, along with use of hallucinogens, provided a favourable setting for contact with the spirit world.</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mayan consumption of alcohol and psychoactive drugs during their religious ceremonies was condemned by the first Spanish priests. Diego de Landa<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> provided the following description of balché use: “The Indians consumed alcohol and drugs in immense quantities, which gave rise to many evils, including murders. They made wine from honey, water, and the root of a certain tree which they grew just for that purpose. The wine had a very strong flavour and a putrid odour”.</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Sacred mushrooms</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main entheogenic mushrooms belong to the genera <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Panaeolus</span>, and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Stropharia</span>. The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> genus includes some 230 mushroom species; at least 54 are found in Mexico and they were used for their hallucinogenic properties by pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures. Noteworthy examples include <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P. semilanceata</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P. mexicana</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P. aztecorum</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P. cubensis</span>, and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P. caerulescens</span>. These are small mushrooms with a height range of 2.5-10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm; the stalks are long, thin, and fibrous, and the caps measure between 1 and 3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm across.</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main active ingredient present in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp. is an indolealkylamine, 0-phosphoryl-4 hydroxy-<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span>,<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span>-dimethyltryptamine or psilocybin. Once psilocybin has been ingested, it undergoes dephosphorylation. This process transforms it into psilocin (4-hydroxy-<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span>-dimethyltripatmine), which has stronger hallucinogenic properties. Psilocybin can be absorbed in the form of fresh, non-boiled mushroom, or as dried powdered mushroom.</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Psilocybin levels vary between different mushroom species, although doses of more than 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg provoke hallucinogenic effects. Thirty minutes after ingesting the mushroom, the subject experiences sensations of euphoria, detachment, distortion of the visual field, and introspection with a tendency towards isolation from surroundings. The duration of these trance-like symptoms is 4-6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h. Subjects also exhibit cutaneous and facial flushing, sweating, tachycardia, and increased arterial pressure. High doses (20-30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg) may provoke cholinergic symptoms including dry mouth, urinary retention, and increase in hallucinations. By 8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>hours after consumption, the subject's state will be normal. On some occasions, headache, fatigue, and a feeling of well-being may persist for several days.</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms in ritual ceremonies was widespread among Mesoamerican cultures. Religious practices with sacred mushrooms extended from the Valley of Mexico to the rest of Central America, and they are thought to be at least 3500 years old. The Maya consumed <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">k’aizalaj Okox</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe cubensis</span>), known to the Aztecs as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">teonanácatl</span>. These mushrooms were also consumed by the Huastec, Totonac, Mazatec, and Mixtec peoples. Since prehistoric times, the people of Teotenango have had the custom of grinding mushrooms with water on models of temples that were to be constructed, or on stones marked with petroglyphs. Furthermore, archaeological evidence points to mushroom use in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, where the ‘mushroom stones’ carved to represent hallucinogenic mushrooms have been found. In Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala, researchers found 9 mushroom stones whose stalks are decorated with anthropomorphic figures demonstrating the pre-Hispanic custom of grinding sacred mushrooms into powder.</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Mixtec god Seven Flowers was depicted with two mushrooms in his hands. A sculpture of Xochipilli, the Aztec god of flowers, was found in the 16th century on the slopes of Popocatepetl. It features a variety of medicinal and hallucinogenic plants and fungi, including <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe aztecorum</span>, whose habitat is limited to this region. Other psychoactive plants carved into this sculpture include <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nicotiana tabacum</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Heimia salicifolia</span> (sinicuichi), <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Turbina corymbosa</span> (ololiuhqui) and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp.</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Tepantitla mural in Teotihuacán, dating to 500 CE, is also very illustrative; it shows the Toltec rain god Tlaloc, with priest-like figures bearing hallucinogenic mushrooms springing up where his raindrops fall (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>). The Dresden and Madrid codices show mushrooms in Mayan scenes of human sacrifice. Psychoactive mushrooms were also used in the coronation ceremonies of numerous Aztec emperors, including Tizoc, Ahuízotl, and Moctezuma II.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several 16th-century historians (Durán, Sahagún, and Motolinía) described Aztecs using sacred mushrooms during their religious ceremonies. In <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Historia de las cosas de Nueva España</span>, Fray Bernardino de Sahagún (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>) described the uses and properties of these hallucinogenic mushrooms as follows<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a>:</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">“The little mushrooms that grow in this land are named teonanácatl. They grow beneath the hay in the fields and plains. They are round, and their stems are tall and round and slender. Their taste is unpleasant; they cause sore throat and drunkenness. They are used as medicine for fever and gout. No more than two or three should be eaten. Those who eat them see visions and feel fluttering of the heart; the visions they see are sometimes frightening and sometimes humorous. Those few who eat them in excess are driven to lust. Silly and naughty boys are told that they have eaten nanácatl”.</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 1959, Albert Hofman isolated psilocin from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe mexicana</span>, and the field of ethnomycology was born. Meanwhile, Gordon Wasson described sacramental use of the mushroom <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp. among the Mazatec people and interviewed María Sabina, a well-known shaman. Today, Mazatec rituals associated with hallucinogenic mushroom use have been blended syncretically with various Catholic rites. Mushrooms are harvested at dawn and during the new moon, after which worshippers recite Christian prayers and bless the mushrooms in church. The consumption ritual during which <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> specimens are ingested a pair at a time must comply with a series of precepts, including fasting and abstinence from sex and alcohol. The ritual takes one night to perform and mushrooms must be placed on an altar and purified with tobacco and incense. This will let the shaman diagnose and treat participants’ illnesses.</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Peyote</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Peyote (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Lophophora williansii</span>) is a rounded spineless cactus containing more than 60 hallucinogenic alkaloids of the phenylethylamine family, and especially mescaline. The liquid extract of the peyote cactus is used to treat cutaneous lesions, snakebite, and scorpion stings, since it contains peyocactin, an alkaloid that has bacteriostatic properties. The term <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mescal</span> is derived from the Nahuatl <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mexcalli</span> (maguey). The term is a misnomer introduced in colonial times because the Spaniards believed that the ‘inebriation’ produced by peyote was similar to that resulting from drinking pulque.</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxypheneylethylamine) is responsible for the hallucinogenic effect of peyote. Mescaline is found within mescal buttons at concentrations ranging from 1% to 6% and the minimum hallucinogenic dose is between 0.3 and 0.5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g, equivalent to 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g of dried peyote. Dried mescal buttons from the cactus may be chewed or drunk in an infusion. The typical dose is 4-12 buttons that are extracted from the main stem and cut into slices. Dried peyote has a characteristic bitter taste. Thirty minutes after it has been ingested, it may cause nausea, vomiting, and sympathomimetic effects (mydriasis, diaphoresis, hypertension, tachycardia, and trembling). The sensory phase lasts at least 6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>hours and subjects report colourful visual hallucinations (kaleidoscopic visions), sensation of weightlessness, and altered perception of time and space. Repeated consumption may lead to a degree of tolerance.</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ritual use of peyote in the Americas dates back more than 5000 years, to prehistoric times. Traces of peyote in a ritual context have been found in Cuatro Ciénagas, Coahuila, Mexico and in the Shumla Cave in Texas, together with other shamanic artefacts: ritual deer scapula rattles, bone rods and scrapers, and tubes containing incense.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> Numerous Mesoamerican cultures, including the Maya and the Aztecs, consumed peyote. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Sophora secundiflora</span> or mescal bean and the San Pedro cactus also contain mescaline and they were used in prehistoric times in Mesoamerica and the Andes, respectively.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fray Bernardino de Sahagún described the use of the drug <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a>: “There is another herb like mountain prickly pear, named peiotl, which is white and can be found in the north. Those who eat or drink of it see terrifying or absurd visions; this inebriation lasts two or three days and then subsides. It is a delicacy often enjoyed by the Chichimeca, for it is sustaining and spurs them to fight with no thought of fear, thirst, or hunger, and they say that it protects them from all danger.”</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Users were persecuted by the Inquisition, and the practice was completely prohibited by 1720. At present, the Tarahumara, Tepehúan, and Huichol peoples of northern Mexico, as well as the Navajo and Comanche in the southern United States, use peyote in ritual and curative ceremonies and to promote communication with the spirit world. Peyote rituals are still very much a part of life for the Huichol, who make a yearly pilgrimage from the western Sierra Madre to Wirikuta, the sacred site of peyote in Potosí. This journey requires spiritual purification, abstinence rites, and numerous ritual ceremonies, including shooting arrows into the first cactus to be harvested and honouring it with an offering of corn. The peyote is ‘hunted’ in this way because the Huichol consider it to be the supernatural guardian of the deer. Modern ceremonies take place at night and peyote consumption is associated with the use of tobacco and other psychoactive plants. Huichol shamanism includes many elements in addition to mescaline consumption: ritual singing, magical flights, and use of drums, all within a religious and ceremonial circle of death and resurrection, a concept shared with Euro-American shamanism.</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Ololiuhqui</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The convolvulaceae are a family of herbaceous ornamental plants with infundibular (bell-shaped) flowers. Different species have seeds containing different alkaloids of the LSD family, such as <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">d</span>-lysergic acid amide (ergine) and isoergine, which act as partial serotonergic agonists.</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The seeds of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Turbina corymbosa</span> (ololiuhqui) and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ipomea violacea</span> (tlilitzin) were consumed by the Maya and Aztec for their psychotropic effects on perception and emotions and to induce trance states. They were commonly used by Mixtec and Zapotec peoples in the state of Oaxaca, and they are used to this day by the local healers who conduct curative and divination ceremonies. Ololiuhqui is very common in Mexico, and it is a type of morning glory so named because its flowers close during the night to reopen in the morning. In Spanish, it is also known as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">quiebracajete blanco</span>, or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">flor de la virgen</span>, since it had religious connotations in the 16th century.</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">T. corymbosa</span> has round coffee-coloured seeds, whereas those of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ipomea violacea</span> are black and called <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">badoh negro</span>. These seeds are ground into powder and taken in water, and they induce sensory/perception alterations that include visual illusions, synaesthesia, euphoria, memory changes, and discrete somnolence. In its cultural context, in contrast with the practices associated with peyote or hallucinogenic mushroom use, ololiuhqui is most often taken alone with the healer. The first phase is marked by a psychic void, which is at times accompanied by vasovagal response and vertigo; some hours later, this is followed by a period of intense serenity and sedation.</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ethnohistorical accounts of use of this plant date to the 16th century. During his journey through Oaxaca, court physician Francisco Hernández described how these seeds were used. He reported that a fully hallucinogenic dose contained 100-150 ground seeds dissolved in cold water.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> In the chapter titled ‘Some herbs with intoxicating effects’, Fray Bernardino de Sahagún presented the following account of the psychoactive effects of ololiuhqui:<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a></p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">“There is an herb named coatl xoxouhquij (green serpent), and it grows a seed they call ololiuquj. This seed produces inebriation and madness. People mix it in potions to give to those they wish to harm; those who eat it appear to see visions and terrifying things. Sorcerers mix it with food and drink, and so do those who hate others and wish to do them ill. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used to treat gout; ground seeds are applied to the gout-stricken area.”</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The conquistadors soon associated these trance states and the hallucinogenic effect of the seeds with witchcraft and charlatanism, and they refused to recognise the religious and mystical significance of these ceremonies. In 1591, Juan de Cárdenas described the following in his chronicles of the Indies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a>:</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">“In sooth they tell us that peyote, and ololiuhque, when taken by mouth, will cause the wretch who takes them to lose his wits so severely that he sees the devil among other terrible and fearsome apparitions; and he will be warned (so they say) of things to come, and all this must be tricks and lies of Satanas, whose nature is to deceive, with divine permission, the wretch who on such occasions seeks him”.</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Salvia divinorum</span></span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Salvia divinorum</span>, also known as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pipiltzintli</span> and ska María Pastora, was historically used by Mazatec shamans in Oaxaca. The plant contains salvinorin A, an agonist of the kappa-opioid receptor agonist, and smoking it can produce an altered state of consciousness.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> The effective dose is 200<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>μg. The psychoactive effects of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S. divinorum</span> are very intense and promote a pleasant state of introspection, lack of attention to surroundings, and increased sensitivity to luminous and auditory stimuli. The state of lethargy it induces was used in practising divination. The physiological effects associated with consuming this plant are lower blood pressure and lessened headache. Use of this plant is prohibited in the United States, and it is regarded today as an abused substance among adolescents.</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Toloache</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">D. stramonium</span> is known as toloache or ‘devil's herb’ in Mesoamerica (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig. 5</a>). Numerous native peoples of northern Mexico and the southern United States used the plant as medicine, a means of diagnosing disease, to experience their novice visions during puberty rites, and as a hunting aid.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Unlike the different substances that were used to achieve trance states and better perception of consciousness, toloache, with its anticholinergic effect, was used to create states of delirium featuring agitation and intense hallucinations. Researchers in the Mexican state of Hidalgo have discovered pre-Columbian representations of reclining figures with toloache plants growing from their bellies. Toloache was probably used in rites associated with human sacrifice. The Huichol regarded it as the opposite of peyote, which overcomes toloache according to their mythology.</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Teotlaqualli</span><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Teotlaqualli means ‘divine food’ and it refers to a dark-coloured unguent or paste with which Aztec priests anointed their skin. It was made from extracts of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nicotiana rustica</span>, ololiuhqui, and the ashes of ‘poisonous animals’ including spiders, scorpions, and snakes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> Even though its full contents are unknown, some authors speculate that in addition to ‘divine tar’, the unguent could contain substances that would be absorbed transdermally to provoke altered states of consciousness.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The sooty appearance of the priests and healers who used this unguent was thought to indicate witchcraft in colonial times. Fray Diego Durán, in his history book titled <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Historia de las Indias de Nueva España e Islas de Tierra Firme</span>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> wrote that “They mixed these things with soot and placed it in vessels and cups before their god like divine food. Daubed with this mixture, they could not help but turn into witches or demons, and see and speak to the devil”.</p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Teotlaqualli was offered to the gods as a divine food. Aztec priests covered themselves with this mixture to reach the proper state of consciousness in which to serve the gods. In some occasions, Aztec emperors and even soldiers were painted with teotlaqualli. Researchers believe that this substance provides the explanation for the dark colouration of some Aztec gods as they are shown in codices.</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Bufotoxins</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Bufotoxins, found in the parotid glands of different toad species, are toxic substances with psychoactive properties. In Central America, toads of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bufo</span> genus secrete a milky toxic substance to dissuade predators. Animals that ingest the venom, or eat the toad, may experience cardiovascular and gastrointestinal symptoms. The most severe forms of intoxication may provoke cardiac arrhythmia, diarrhoea, convulsions, or even death due to cardiac arrest.</p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Sonoran Desert toad, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bufo alvarius</span>, contains a variety of bufotoxins including 5-methoxy-<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span>,<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span>-dimethyltryptamine and bufotenin, both of which are hallucinogenic. Other toad species produce bufotenin only; while this substance is psychoactive if smoked or ingested, it is somewhat less potent than other compounds.</p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dried skins of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bufo</span> spp. have been used to induce trance states since Olmec times. Proof of the above is that remains of these toads have been found in ceremonial complexes alongside Olmec priests, and ceramic figures of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">B. alvarius</span> have also been found in ritual settings.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> Ceremonial vessels featuring the sacred toad have also been discovered. Historians of the 16th century stated that the Maya added tobacco and the skins of the common toad <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bufo marinus</span> to their alcoholic drinks to increase their potency. The K’iche’ group of the Maya still uses the skin of this amphibian as an ingredient in their balché.</p></span></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Conclusions</span><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At present, numerous hallucinogenic substances derived from mushrooms and plants are still used in the indigenous societies of Mesoamerica, and these societies have elaborated complex ceremonies to prevent the abuse of these substances. Peyote cactus and psilocybin mushrooms are consumed in religious and therapeutic ceremonies. The American Indian Religious Freedom Act specified that sacramental use of peyote was permitted for members of the Native American Church. Hallucinogens were linked to the theocratic, political, and religious complex of Mesoamerican pre-Columbian societies. In modern indigenous cultures, however, hallucinogens are viewed as an instrument permitting the continuity of the shamanic complex, induction of altered states of consciousness, and performance of curative ceremonies. The abuse of these substances for hedonistic purposes is a recent development in post-modern European-American societies. Use or abuse of these substances should be considered when young people are examined in hospital emergency departments with symptoms of delirium or altered level of consciousness.</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:8 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres848378" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Objectives" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Results" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec843489" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres848377" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Introducción" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Objetivos" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec843490" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" "secciones" => array:8 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Inebriation: balché and the Mayan ritual enemas" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Sacred mushrooms" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Peyote" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Ololiuhqui" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Salvia divinorum" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Toloache" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Teotlaqualli" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Bufotoxins" ] ] ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Conflicts of interest" ] 7 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2011-03-30" "fechaAceptado" => "2011-07-05" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec843489" "palabras" => array:6 [ 0 => "Hallucinogens" 1 => "Hallucinogenic fungi" 2 => "Peyote" 3 => "Pre-Columbian culture" 4 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp." 5 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Turbina corymbosa</span>" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec843490" "palabras" => array:6 [ 0 => "Alucinógenos" 1 => "Culturas precolombinas" 2 => "Hongos" 3 => "Peyote" 4 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp." 5 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Turbina corymbosa</span>" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Objectives</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The archaeological, ethno-historical and ethnographic evidence of the use of hallucinogenic substances in Mesoamerica is reviewed.</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Results</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Hallucinogenic cactus, plants and mushrooms were used to induce altered states of consciousness in healing rituals and religious ceremonies. The Maya drank balché (a mixture of honey and extracts of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Lonchocarpus</span>) in group ceremonies to achieve intoxication. Ritual enemas and other psychoactive substances were also used to induce states of trance. Olmec, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec used peyote, hallucinogenic mushrooms (teonanacatl: <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp.) and the seeds of ololiuhqui (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Turbina corymbosa</span>), that contain mescaline, psilocybin and lysergic acid amide, respectively. The skin of the toad <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bufo</span> spp. contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenic properties, and was used during the Olmec period. Jimson weed (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Datura stramonium</span>), wild tobacco (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nicotiana rustica</span>), water lily (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nymphaea ampla</span>) and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Salvia divinorum</span> were used for their psychoactive effects. Mushroom stones dating from 3000 BC have been found in ritual contexts in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence of peyote use dates back to over 5000 years. Several chroniclers, mainly Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, described their effects in the sixteenth century.</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The use of psychoactive substances was common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican societies. Today, local shamans and healers still use them in ritual ceremonies in Mesoamerica.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Objectives" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Results" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] "es" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Introducción</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El continente americano es rico en hongos y plantas psicoactivas, y numero-sas culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas las emplearon con fines mágicos, terapéuticos y religiosos.</p></span> <span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Objetivos</span><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Se revisan las evidencias arqueológicas, etnohistóricas y etnográficas del uso de sustancias alucinógenas en Mesoamérica.</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Resultados</span><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Cactus, plantas y hongos alucinógenos se utilizaron para provocar estados altera-dos del nivel de conciencia en ceremonias rituales y curativas. Los mayas ingerían el balché (hidromiel y extracto de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Lonchocarpus</span>) en ceremonias grupales para lograr la embriaguez. También emplearon enemas rituales con sustancias psicoactivas para inducir estados de trance. Olmecas, zapotecas, mayas y aztecas usaron el peyote, los hongos alucinógenos (teonanacatl: <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Psilocybe</span> spp.) y las semillas de ololiuhqui (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Turbina corymbosa</span>), que contienen mescalina, psilocibina y amida del ácido lisérgico, respectivamente. La piel del sapo <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bufo</span> spp. contiene bufotoxinas, con propiedades alucinógenas y fue usado desde el periodo olmeca. El toloache (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Datura estramonio</span>), el tabaco silvestre (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nicotiana rustica</span>), el lirio de agua (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nymphaea ampla</span>) y la hoja de la pastora (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Salvia divinorum</span>) se utilizaron por sus efectos psicotropos. Piedra fún-gicas de 3.000 a¿nos de antigüedad se han encontrado en contextos rituales en Mesoamérica. Las evidencias arqueológicas del uso del peyote se remontan a más de 5.000 a¿nos. Diversos cronistas, entre ellos Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, relataron sus efectos en el siglo xvi.</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El empleo de sustancias psicotrópicas fue muy común en las sociedades preco-lombinas mesoamericanas. En la actualidad chamanes y curanderos locales las siguen usando en ceremonias rituales.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Introducción" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Objetivos" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as: Carod-Artal F. Alucinógenos en las culturas precolombinas mesoamericanas. Neurología. 2015;30:42–49.</p>" ] ] "multimedia" => array:5 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1558 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 374212 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Temple of the Cross, Palenque. Ceremonial tobacco use.</p>" ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 381 "Ancho" => 951 "Tamanyo" => 125134 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Mayan ritual enema</p>" ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 614 "Ancho" => 951 "Tamanyo" => 237904 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Tepantitla mural. Priests bearing psilocybin mushrooms around the god Tlaloc.</p>" ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1285 "Ancho" => 900 "Tamanyo" => 213754 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Fray Bernardino de Sahagún</p>" ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 1197 "Ancho" => 897 "Tamanyo" => 242928 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Toloache</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:21 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Síndromes neurológicos asociados con el consumo de plantas y hongos con componente tóxico (II). hongos y plantas alucinógenos, micotoxinas y hierbas medicinales" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => "F. 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| 2017 October | 56 | 30 | 86 |
| 2017 September | 39 | 37 | 76 |
| 2017 August | 76 | 37 | 113 |
| 2017 July | 62 | 40 | 102 |
| 2017 June | 111 | 62 | 173 |
| 2017 May | 98 | 50 | 148 |
| 2017 April | 78 | 74 | 152 |
| 2017 March | 104 | 98 | 202 |
| 2017 February | 164 | 72 | 236 |
| 2017 January | 80 | 59 | 139 |
| 2016 December | 99 | 61 | 160 |
| 2016 November | 152 | 103 | 255 |
| 2016 October | 149 | 40 | 189 |
| 2016 September | 246 | 33 | 279 |
| 2016 August | 144 | 11 | 155 |
| 2016 July | 81 | 8 | 89 |
| 2016 June | 103 | 28 | 131 |
| 2016 May | 130 | 44 | 174 |
| 2016 April | 134 | 53 | 187 |
| 2016 March | 137 | 41 | 178 |
| 2016 February | 107 | 35 | 142 |
| 2016 January | 202 | 39 | 241 |
| 2015 December | 119 | 28 | 147 |
| 2015 November | 106 | 27 | 133 |
| 2015 October | 97 | 41 | 138 |
| 2015 September | 99 | 25 | 124 |
| 2015 August | 116 | 25 | 141 |
| 2015 July | 158 | 16 | 174 |
| 2015 June | 93 | 15 | 108 |
| 2015 May | 127 | 33 | 160 |
| 2015 April | 103 | 36 | 139 |
| 2015 March | 137 | 33 | 170 |
| 2015 February | 227 | 40 | 267 |
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