Fungal endophytes isolated from Protium heptaphyllum and Trattinnickia rhoifolia as antagonists of Fusarium oxysporum

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(A) Electrophoretic analysis of crystal proteins. Lanes: 1, INTA TA21-2; 2, INTA H4-1; 3, INTA H4-3; 4, INTA H3-3; 5, INTA Mo14-1; 6, INTA H48-5; 7, kurstaki HD-1; 8, thuringiensis HD-2; 9, morrisoni strain tenebrionis. MW with sizes indicated on the left (kDa) (Promega). (B) Plasmid profiles. Lanes: 1, INTA TA21-2; 2, kurstaki HD-1; 3, INTA H4-1; 4, INTA H4-3; 5, INTA Mo14-1; 6, INTA H48-5; 7, INTA H3-3; 8, kurstaki HD-1; 9, thuringiensis HD-2. MW with sizes indicated on the left (bp) (Promega). (C) REP-PCR fingerprinting. Lanes: 1, thuringiensis HD2; 2, israelensis HD-567; 3, morrisoni strain tenebrionis; 4, kurstaki HD-1; 5, INTA H3-3; 6, INTA H4-3; 7, INTA H48-5; 8, INTA Mo14-1; 9, INTA TA21-2; 10, INTA H4-1. MW with sizes indicated on the right (bp) (Invitrogen)." ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Melisa P. Pérez, Diego H. Sauka, María I. Onco, Marcelo F. Berretta, Graciela B. Benintende" "autores" => array:5 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Melisa P." "apellidos" => "Pérez" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Diego H." "apellidos" => "Sauka" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "María I." "apellidos" => "Onco" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Marcelo F." "apellidos" => "Berretta" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Graciela B." "apellidos" => "Benintende" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0325754117300184?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/03257541/0000004900000003/v1_201708180123/S0325754117300184/v1_201708180123/en/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:19 [ "pii" => "S0325754117300160" "issn" => "03257541" "doi" => "10.1016/j.ram.2017.02.002" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2017-07-01" "aid" => "169" "copyright" => "Asociación Argentina de Microbiología" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "licencia" => "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Argent Microbiol. 2017;49:247-54" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => true "ES2" => true "LATM" => true ] "gratuito" => true "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 1150 "formatos" => array:3 [ "EPUB" => 49 "HTML" => 783 "PDF" => 318 ] ] "en" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "Original article" "titulo" => "Biodiversity of species of Aspergillus section Fumigati in semi-desert soils in Argentina" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "247" "paginaFinal" => "254" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Biodiversidad de especies de Aspergillus de la sección Fumigati en suelos semidesérticos de Argentina" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 3959 "Ancho" => 2569 "Tamanyo" => 360102 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Taxonomic position of the strains of Aspergillus section Fumigati isolated from Argentinian soils based on partial Calmodulin gene phylogeny. Phylogenetic tree inferred from maximum likelihood analysis. Only bootstrap values ≥50% are shown." ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Gustavo E. Giusiano, Eduardo Piontelli, Mariana S. Fernández, Magdalena L. Mangiaterra, María E. Cattana, Sándor Kocsubé, János Varga" "autores" => array:7 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Gustavo E." "apellidos" => "Giusiano" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Eduardo" "apellidos" => "Piontelli" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Mariana S." "apellidos" => "Fernández" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Magdalena L." "apellidos" => "Mangiaterra" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "María E." "apellidos" => "Cattana" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Sándor" "apellidos" => "Kocsubé" ] 6 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "János" "apellidos" => "Varga" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0325754117300160?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/03257541/0000004900000003/v1_201708180123/S0325754117300160/v1_201708180123/en/main.assets" ] "en" => array:20 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "Original article" "titulo" => "Fungal endophytes isolated from Protium heptaphyllum and Trattinnickia rhoifolia as antagonists of Fusarium oxysporum" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "255" "paginaFinal" => "263" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Juan E. Fierro-Cruz, Pedro Jiménez, Ericsson Coy-Barrera" "autores" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Juan E." "apellidos" => "Fierro-Cruz" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Pedro" "apellidos" => "Jiménez" ] 2 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Ericsson" "apellidos" => "Coy-Barrera" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "inquibio@unimilitar.edu.co" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "*" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Km 2 Cajicá – Zipaquirá, Cajicá, Colombia" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Endófitos fúngicos aislados de Protium heptaphyllum y Trattinnickia rhoifolia como antagonistas de Fusarium oxysporum" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1291 "Ancho" => 2500 "Tamanyo" => 120795 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Inhibition of F. oxysporum G1 (Fox) caused by C. globosum F211_UMNG (Cg) and Meyerozima sp. (Mg) in PDA media in dual cultures at 6 days post inoculation." ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "IntroductionUsing chemically synthesized fungicides has been the first line strategy to control phytopathogenic fungi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405">31</a>. However, secondary effects, such as environmental pollution and resistance development due to the use of these products, has led to a growing reluctance to use hazardous fungicides in agriculture. Thus, an enhanced trend in searching new control strategies involving environment-friendly alternatives in the management of plant pathogens has arisen<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350">20</a>. In the search for such control strategies, naturally-occurring chemical entities have become potential alternatives for the industry to replace synthetic products<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365">23</a>. In this context, microorganisms constitute a rich source of compounds with useful properties<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0490">48</a> for several applications in the agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0305">11,23</a>.For several decades, the interaction between fungal endophytes and their hosts has attracted the researchers’ attention, mainly because of the advantageous characteristics they confer to their host. Among these characteristics we can mention enhanced stress tolerance, plant growth factor production, herbivore repellency and protection against pathogens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340">18</a>. The latter characteristic is partly due to the fact that endophytes compete with other microorganisms for a specific niche, which could be achieved by the production of antibiotic-like secondary metabolites, along with other strategies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270">4</a>. As a consequence of their repellent properties, endophytes have been proposed as biocontrollers and as a promising source of antifungal metabolites against phytopathogens of agronomic importance<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340">18</a>.Based on our ongoing search for biologically active secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi, the objective of this work was to explore the diversity of endophytes isolated from Protium heptaphyllum and Trattinnickia rhoifolia (Burseraceae) form Casanare, Colombia. These tree species, have been traditionally used by indigenous communities to treat several ailments<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310">12</a>, and their complex chemical repertory has provided useful compounds having industrial, pharmaceutical and agronomic potential<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0440">38,43</a>. Furthermore, endophytes have been isolated from a species of the Burseraceae family, such as Muscodor yucatensis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375">25</a>, with potential for controlling phytopathogens. Therefore, the aim of this work was to test in vitro the abilities of endophytes to inhibit the mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum, by metabolite production. F. oxysporum is a pathogen of many plant species that represent a major threat for the production of several agriculturally important crops, such as banana, carnation, chickpeas, dates, lentils, tomato, and others<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385">27</a>. The active component or components, responsible for the antifungal activity were partially characterized following a bioassay-guided fractionation test of the liquid culture-derived crude extract from the most antagonistic endophyte, to be incorporated in the future to control management programs for plant pathogen F. oxysporum.MethodsRecovery of endophytes and isolationA total of two individuals from P. heptaphyllum and two from T. rhoifolia were collected in the foothill of the west Colombian Andes mountains in Aguazul, Casanare, Colombia (N 05°13′47.89″, W 072°30′31.38″), a transition ecosystem between the savanna and the high Andean ecosystems. Botanical specimens of P. heptaphyllum (Aubl.) Marchand (COL573961) and T. rhoifolia (Aubl.) Marchand (COL573962) were deposited in the Colombian National Herbarium. From each tree, the plant material (from higher, medium and lower strata) was sampled in order to collect representative isolates from all the plants. Five leaves per level were collected in a total of 60 leaflets that were bagged in sealed bags and stored in dark conditions for 24h at room temperature (ca. 26°C). Petioles were then removed and the complete leaves were vigorously washed with distilled sterile water and Tween 20 (0.01%), then submerged in 70% aqueous ethanol (1min), then in 1% sodium hypochlorite (3min), and then rinsed three times with sterilized distilled water. Leaves were then imprinted on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA, Oxoid, UK) for verifying the disinfection of all epiphytic microorganisms.Each leaf was sectioned into 2mm2 pieces, and 5 randomly-chosen pieces from each leaf were seeded in Petri dishes (90mm×15mm) containing water agar (agar 1.5%) (WA), 1/10 PDA (PDA at a 10th of the recommended concentration) or PDA, and then incubated at 26°C. Hyphae tips emerging from the leaf pieces were collected for three weeks, and sub-cultured on PDA at 26°C in the dark. Axenic cultures were established and, when a specific fungus sporulated, a monosporic culture was established. Those fungi that never sporulated were kept for a hyphal tip culture.Identification of endophytesFungal populations were identified on the basis of cultural characteristics and morphology of fruiting bodies and spores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0265">3,14,21</a>. Fungi were identified up to the genus level by observing the presence of conidial mycelium, spore mass color, distinctive reverse colony color, production of diffusible pigments, and spore morphology<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265">3</a>. Cultures that repetitively failed to sporulate on different media were recorded as mycelia sterilia.Additionally, those endophytes that inhibited F. oxysporum growth above 40% were identified by amplification of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, using the primers ITS1 (5′-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3′) and ITS 4(5′-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3′)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0480">46</a>. Amplicons were sequenced with the same primers bidirectionally a single time in Macrogen Inc. (Korea), and the resulting sequences were aligned and edited in BioEdit v7.2.5<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315">13</a>. The sequences were confronted with those in GeneBank database (<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov</a>), using BLASTN 2.2.28<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390">28</a>. The closest match was selected and aligned using ClustalW<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380">26</a>. For the phylogenetic analysis, tree constructions were done with the MEGA 6.0 program package<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455">41</a> using the neighbor-joining method<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435">37</a>. Bootstrap analysis was done using 1000-times resampled data. The resulting sequences were deposited in the GenBank.Ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extractionFungi selected for their inhibitory activity at in vitro conditions against F. oxysporum were reactivated in 500ml of Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB, Oxoid, UK), Sabouraud Broth (SAB, Oxoid, UK) and yeast extract sucrose media (YES)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345">19</a>, and cultured in an orbital shaker under constant agitation (100rpm) at 21°C for 7 days. After that period the culture was filtered using Whatman No. 1 qualitative filter paper, and mycelia were lyophilized. Separately, both mycelia and filtered media were mixed with EtOAc in a 1:3 proportion and incubated in an orbital shaker in constant agitation (100rpm) for 48h. The organic phase (EtOAc) was separated from the mycelia by vacuum filtration using Whatman No. 1 qualitative filter paper, and from filtered liquid media using a decantation funnel. The resulting extracts were concentrated by lyophilization.Antifungal assaysFungal endophytes and a phytopathogenic isolate (F. oxysporum G1 isolated from Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry) available in the collection of the phytopathology laboratory at Universidad Militar Nueva Granada) were cultured on PDA at 26°C for 5 days at 26°C in the dark. In order to evaluate the possible effect of each endophyte on phytopathogen growth, dual cultures were settled and each isolate was challenged with F. oxysporum G1. Thus, a plug (3mm diameter), which was obtained from the colonial actively growing edge of the endophyte to be tested, was seeded on PDA, 10mm away from the edge of a Petri dish (90mm×10mm). At a spot distance (10mm) from the diametrally-opposed edge, a similar plug of F. oxysporum was seeded. Six days later, the effect of each endophyte on F. oxysporum growth was observed and F. oxysporum colony radial measurement and distance between colonies were recorded. As control, a plug of each organism was cultured alone. These experiments were replicated three times. Results were compared by the Tukey's HSD (honest significant difference) test.The antifungal activity of the extracts was tested by direct TLC bioautographic detection<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295">9</a>. Extracts and fractions from the selected endophytes (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>) were diluted in ethanol (HPLC grade) and 30μg were seeded in a single spot on a TLC Aluminum silica gel 60 Sheet 20cm×20cm (Sigma–Aldrich). Then the silica sheet was sprayed with a 1×106conidia/ml conidial suspension of F. oxysporum until the whole sheet was covered. The assays were incubated in a humid chamber for 3 days, and then F. oxysporum growth over the sheet was evaluated under UV-light.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia>Fractionation of the most active extractThe most active extract was fractionated by preparative HPLC (Shimadzu prominence LC20AD), in gradient elution, using a Shimadzu Premier column C-18 (4.6mm×150mm, 5μm) at a flow rate of 2ml/min. The injection volume was 50μl. The mobile phases consisted in methanol (HPLC grade) (Phase A) and trifluoroacetic acid 0.005% (HPLC grade) (Phase B). Separation was carried out for 25min, in a FRC 10A Shimadzu fraction collector. A diode array detector (DAD) performed signal detection at 270nm. A total of 20 fractions were recovered and then concentrated by lyophilization.LC-MS-based chemical analysisExtracts and fractions were characterized by Reverse Phase Liquid Chromatography with multi-wavelength UV-VIS detection (by a DAD) and coupled by electrospray to a mass spectrometry detector (RP-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS) (Shimadzu Prominence LC/MS 8030). Analyses were performed on a Shimadzu prominence instrument, in gradient elution, using a Shimadzu Premier column C-18 (4.6mm×150mm, 5μm). Simultaneous monitoring was carried out at 270nm, at a flow rate of 0.6ml/min. The operating temperature was 30°C and the injection volume was 20μl. As mobile phase A 1% formic acid in distilled water (HPLC grade) was used, and acetonitrile (ACN) (HPLC grade) as mobile phase B; separation was performed for 33min. The mass spectrometry detector (MSD) consisted of an electrospray ionization (ESI) source and a triple quadrupole analyzer. The mass spectrometry method consisted of a scan in simultaneous positive and negative ionization with an acquisition time of 2–33min, a mass range of 50–2000m/z, a scan speed of 1667μ/s, an event time of 0.5s, nebulizer gas flow of 1.5l/min, 350°C interface temperature and DL, and 450°C block temperature. The drying gas flow rate was 9l/s. The analysis was monitored at wavelengths between 270 and 330nm. Annotation and identification of the major and minor metabolites in the extract was performed by mass spectrometry- based analysis, complemented with the analysis of reported metabolites.ResultsRecovery of endophytesA total of 577 endophytes were isolated from 900 cultured pieces of leaflets. A subtotal of 355 endophytes were selected after the elimination of redundant morphotypes derived from the same leaflet. The highest number of endophytes (n=236) was recovered from the lowest collection level for both species. The ITS region of the isolates was amplified and sequenced to determine the phylogenetic relationships among them (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>). A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on a 570bp sequences and isolates clustered as follows: endophyte F92_UMNG clustered with Talaromyces amestolkiae, F18_UMNG with Phyllosticta sp., F211_UMNG with Chaetomium globosum, F299_UMNG with Xylaria grammica, and F281_UMNG with Meyerozyma sp. (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia>Antifungal testThe antifungal ability of 355 fungal endophytes against F. oxysporum G1 was evaluated by the dual culture method. Five endophytes reduced the area of F. oxysporum growth by at least 40%, without colony contact (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>), which were grouped in a single group by the Tukey's HSD test.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia>EtOAc-soluble extracts obtained from two isolates, F211_UMNG and F281_UMNG, cultured in YES, exerted inhibitory effect on F. oxysporum by direct bioautography (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>A). On comparing the inhibitory effect produced by these two isolates on F. oxysporum radial growth, it was found that isolate F211_UMNG (C. globosum) exerted a 64% in vitro inhibition of F. oxysporum colony growth arresting its growth producing with a distance between colonies of 12.5±0.6mm while F281_UMNG caused 45% inhibition showing 5.7±0.9mm between colonies (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0010">Figs. 2 and 3</a>A).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia>Since the extract from F211_UMNG isolate showed greater inhibitory activity against F. oxysporum, it was fractionated in order to determine the most active fractions. A total of 20 fractions were recovered (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>A) and were additionally tested by bioautography against a conidial suspension of F. oxysporum. Only fraction #14 (30μg) exerted inhibition of the fungus (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>B). Fraction #14 was analyzed by LC-MS, rendering a chromatogram that included two defined signals between min 12 and min 17 (peaks 1 and 3, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>B).<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia>DiscussionFrom the recovered isolates, fungi like Alternaria sp., Aspergillus sp., Chaetomium sp., Epicoccum sp., Fusarium sp., Pestalotiopsis sp., Phomopsis sp., Xylaria sp., among others, were identified by their morphological traits and have been previously reported as common endophytes in other plants<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0280">6–8,22,24,29,47,49</a>. A high diversity of fungal species were also found in leaves and stems of Boswellia sacra (Burseraceae), being Alternaria and Aspergillus the most dominant genera, which were both also isolated in this work. However, Chaetomium was also found in a relative high proportion (26.3%) represented by two species, C. globosum and C. spirale<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300">10</a>. Screening works in Boswellia serrata exhibited Myrothecium verrucaria and Phoma sp.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450">40</a> as dominant endophytes, which were also isolated in our samples.The 355 endophytes isolated in this work were evaluated by the dual culture method against F. oxysporum and only five endophytes showed inhibition against F. oxysporum presumably by metabolite production because they inhibited the extension on the colony without mycelial contact and reduced the area of the phytopathogen by at least 40% (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>). Antagonistic endophytes were identified by amplification of a 570bp (ITS) region as C. globosum, Meyerozyma spp., Phyllosticta spp., T. amestolkiae, and X. grammic; such species have been reported as being endophytes and having antibiotic activity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0255">1,2,17,33,35,39,49</a>.The extract from isolate C. globosum F211_UMNG, at 30μg, caused inhibit they inhibited the extension on the colony ion of F. oxysporum growth (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>A). Based on the available literature, in the Chaetomium genus, mostly in C. globosum, seven signals defined by mass spectrum analysis were found to have the same m/z value to that reported (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>). Nevertheless, five isomers previously reported in the Chaetomium genus matched the m/z value detected at 38min (peak 5, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>B) and, therefore they cannot be differentiated in accordance with the known MS limitations. Previous studies found that C. globosum synthetized several molecules such as chaetoglobosins, epipolythiodioxopiperazines, azaphilones, xanthones, anthraquinones, chromones, depsidones, terpenoids, and steroids, among others. These types of compounds have shown antitumor, cytotoxic, antimalarial, enzyme inhibitory, antibiotic, and other activities<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0500">50</a>. In the present study cladosporin, chaetoatrosin A and chaetoviridin A (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>C) were identified to be active against F. oxysporum, in the EtOAc extract of C. globosum F211_UMNG. These compounds were previously reported as having antifungal activity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330">16,34,45</a>. Chaetoatrosin A acts as an inhibitor of chitin synthase II, while chaetoviridin A inhibits the cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460">42</a>. The action of cladosporin is no fully understood but it has been reported that it exhibited lysyl-tRNA synthetase inhibition in P. falciparum<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325">15</a> and that its mode of action is different to that affecting ß-tubuline assembly in mitosis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0475">45</a>. The combination of the modes of action of the identified molecules might rationalize the observed growth inhibition of F. oxysporum in the in vitro and bioautography test.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia>In conclusion, five endophytes acting as antagonists of F. oxysporum under in vitro conditions were isolated and identified in the present study. Isolate C. globosum F211_UMNG-derived extract inhibits the growth of F. oxysporum, possibly by at least three molecules having different modes of action, implying its possible application in control schemes of F. oxysporum<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385">27</a>. A confirmation of the results through in vivo testing is required, involving endophyte C. globosum and purifying the identified compounds for evaluating their ability in the control of the disease caused by F. oxysporum.Ethical responsibilitiesProtection of human and animal subjectsThe authors declare that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this study.Confidentiality of dataThe authors declare that they have followed the protocols of their work center on the publication of patient data.Right to privacy and informed consentThe authors declare that no patient data appear in this article.FundingThe present work was financed by Vicerrectoría de Investigaciones at UMNG through the project INV-CIAS-1472.Conflict of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:13 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres883271" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec869971" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres883270" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec869972" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Methods" "secciones" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Recovery of endophytes and isolation" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Identification of endophytes" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extraction" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Antifungal assays" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Fractionation of the most active extract" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "LC-MS-based chemical analysis" ] ] ] 6 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Results" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Recovery of endophytes" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Antifungal test" ] ] ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Discussion" ] 8 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Ethical responsibilities" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0070" "titulo" => "Protection of human and animal subjects" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0075" "titulo" => "Confidentiality of data" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0080" "titulo" => "Right to privacy and informed consent" ] ] ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0085" "titulo" => "Funding" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0090" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xack295015" "titulo" => "Acknowledgements" ] 12 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2016-02-08" "fechaAceptado" => "2016-12-28" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec869971" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Endophytes" 1 => "Burseraceae" 2 => "Chaetomium" 3 => "Metabolites" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec869972" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Endófitos" 1 => "Burseraceae" 2 => "Chaetomium" 3 => "Metabolitos" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "Control of fungal pathogens is mainly addressed by the use of chemically synthesized fungicides which result in environmental pollution, developing resistance after prolonged use. In this context, endophytes have been recognized as potential biocontrollers, and also as a promising source of antifungal metabolites. Therefore, as part of our research on phytopathogen controllers, 355 fungal endophytes were isolated from Protium heptaphyllum and Trattinnickia rhoifolia (Burseraceae), both ethnobotanically important tree species that produce secondary metabolites of agronomic and industrial interest. Endophytes were tested by in vitro dual culture against Fusarium oxysporum, a phytopathogen of agronomic importance. Five endophytes exerted at least 40% inhibition on F. oxysporum growth. Ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extracts were obtained from the most active antagonistic fungi, after growing them in three different liquid media. The extracts were tested against a conidial suspension of F. oxysporum by direct bioautography. Two extracts derived from fungi identified as Chaetomium globosum, F211_UMNG and Meyerozima sp. F281_UMNG showed inhibition of pathogen growth. Isolate C. globosum, F211_UMNG was selected for a chemical analysis by RP-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS and antifungal molecules such as cladosporin, chaetoatrosin A and chaetoviridin A were annotated and identified based on their MS data." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "El control de patógenos fúngicos se basa principalmente en el uso de fungicidas de síntesis química, los que pueden dar lugar a la contaminación del medio ambiente y el desarrollo de resistencia después de un uso prolongado. En este contexto, los endófitos han sido reconocidos como potenciales biocontroladores y también como fuentes prometedoras de metabolitos secundarios antifúngicos. En el marco de nuestra investigación sobre controladores de fitopatógenos, se aislaron 355 hongos endófitos de Protium heptaphyllum y Trattinnickia rhoifolia (Burseraceae), especies arbóreas de valor etnobotánico que producen metabolitos secundarios de interés agronómico e industrial. Los endófitos fueron evaluados in vitro en cultivos duales frente a Fusarium oxysporum, un fitopatógeno de importancia agronómica. Cinco endófitos mostraron al menos un 40% de inhibición en el crecimiento de F. oxysporum. Una vez determinados los hongos más activos, estos se cultivaron en 3 medios líquidos diferentes y a partir de ellos se preparó una serie de extractos solubles en acetato de etilo. Los extractos fueron probados contra una suspensión de conidios de F. oxysporum por bioautografía directa. Dos extractos derivados de los hongos identificados como Chaetomium globosum (F211_UMNG) y Meyerozima sp. (F281_UMNG) mostraron inhibición del crecimiento del patógeno. En el extracto derivado del hongo C. globosum se anotaron e identificaron los compuestos antifúngicos cladosporina, chaetoatrosina A y chaetoviridina A mediante el análisis por RP-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS." ] ] "multimedia" => array:6 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 3734 "Ancho" => 2696 "Tamanyo" => 817546 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Dendrogram showing the phylogenetic relationship of fungal endophytes based on the ITS region. Phylogenies were inferred using the neighbor-joining analysis and trees generated in MEGA 6.0 software. Numbers at branch points indicate bootstrap values. The scale bars represent the estimated difference in nucleotide sequence. Red rectangles indicate the endophytes isolated in this work." ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1291 "Ancho" => 2500 "Tamanyo" => 120795 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Inhibition of F. oxysporum G1 (Fox) caused by C. globosum F211_UMNG (Cg) and Meyerozima sp. (Mg) in PDA media in dual cultures at 6 days post inoculation." ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 1170 "Ancho" => 1624 "Tamanyo" => 167661 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "(A) Direct bioautography of endophyte-derived EtOAc extracts against F. oxysporum conidia. Solid lines: Procloraz 40ng (control). Medium dashed line: Supernatant medium of EtOAc extract from C. globosum F211_UMNG. Highly dashed line: Supernatant medium of EtOAc extract from M. guilliermondii F281_UMNG. (B) Bioautography of F211_UMNG extract and most active fraction against F. oxysporum conidia. A: Fraction #14, B: Extract 211 INI, C: Sportak 40ng." ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1812 "Ancho" => 3305 "Tamanyo" => 203710 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "(A) Chromatographic profile of EtOAc extract from F211_UMNG in YES medium. F14+ arrow indicates fraction #14. (B) RP-HPLC-DAD chromatogram of fraction #14. Numbers indicate the annotated compounds by MS data (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>). (C) Structures of the identified compounds in the most active fraction from EtOAc-soluble extract of C. globosum F 211_UMNG." ] ] 4 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at1" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "Species were defined when the node was supported with ≤90 (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>)." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " colspan="4" align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Endophyte isolation conditions</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col">Closest match \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col">NCBI accession \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Code \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Plant \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Level \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Recovered from \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">92 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">T. rhoifolia \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Low \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PDA 1/10 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Talaromyces amestolkiae \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">KU184613 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">211 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">P. heptaphyllum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Low \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">WA \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaetomium globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">KU184610 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">219 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">P. heptaphyllum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Low \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PDA 1/10 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Phyllosticta sp. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">KU184614 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">281 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">P. heptaphyllum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">High \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">WA \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Meyerozyma sp. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">KU184611 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">299 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">P. heptaphyllum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Low \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">WA \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Xylaria grammica \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">KU184612 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab1491086.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Isolation media and closest match in phylogenetic analysis by the neighbor joining method form the most active endophytes against F. oxysporum" ] ] 5 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at2" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:2 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Peak<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">a</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">tR (min) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Compound \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Isolated from \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MW \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">13.0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Cladosporin<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460">42</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum CCTCC AF 206003 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">292.1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">2 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">14.6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Unknown \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">3 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">15.5 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaetopyranin<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470">44</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">339.2 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">4 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">31.0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaetoatrosin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330">16</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. atrobrunneum F449 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">262.1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">5 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">38.0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaetomugilin C<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400">30</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">433.7 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaetomugilin N<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400">30</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">433.9 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">epi-chaetoviridin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275">5</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">433.9 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Chaetoviridin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275">5</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">433.9 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">4′-epi-chaetoviridin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275">5</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">433.9 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">38.4 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Differanisole/differanisole A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410">32</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. spp. strain RB-001 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">278.0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">7 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">39.7 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Unidentified (Reaxys RN 19364999)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430">36</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">C. globosum ZY-22 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">460.7 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab1491085.png" ] ] ] "notaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0005" "etiqueta" => "a" "nota" => "Peak number identifies the signals in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>B." ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Identified compounds isolated from other Chaetomium strains as constituents of fraction #14" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" 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Endófitos fúngicos aislados de Protium heptaphyllum y Trattinnickia rhoifolia como antagonistas de Fusarium oxysporum

Juan E. Fierro-Cruz, Pedro Jiménez, Ericsson Coy-Barrera

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inquibio@unimilitar.edu.co

Corresponding author.

Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Km 2 Cajicá – Zipaquirá, Cajicá, Colombia

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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Using chemically synthesized fungicides has been the first line strategy to control phytopathogenic fungi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&#46; However&#44; secondary effects&#44; such as environmental pollution and resistance development due to the use of these products&#44; has led to a growing reluctance to use hazardous fungicides in agriculture&#46; Thus&#44; an enhanced trend in searching new control strategies involving environment-friendly alternatives in the management of plant pathogens has arisen<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a>&#46; In the search for such control strategies&#44; naturally-occurring chemical entities have become potential alternatives for the industry to replace synthetic products<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a>&#46; In this context&#44; microorganisms constitute a rich source of compounds with useful properties<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0490"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a> for several applications in the agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11&#44;23</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For several decades&#44; the interaction between fungal endophytes and their hosts has attracted the researchers&#8217; attention&#44; mainly because of the advantageous characteristics they confer to their host&#46; Among these characteristics we can mention enhanced stress tolerance&#44; plant growth factor production&#44; herbivore repellency and protection against pathogens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a>&#46; The latter characteristic is partly due to the fact that endophytes compete with other microorganisms for a specific niche&#44; which could be achieved by the production of antibiotic-like secondary metabolites&#44; along with other strategies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a>&#46; As a consequence of their repellent properties&#44; endophytes have been proposed as biocontrollers and as a promising source of antifungal metabolites against phytopathogens of agronomic importance<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on our ongoing search for biologically active secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi&#44; the objective of this work was to explore the diversity of endophytes isolated from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Protium heptaphyllum</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trattinnickia rhoifolia</span> &#40;Burseraceae&#41; form Casanare&#44; Colombia&#46; These tree species&#44; have been traditionally used by indigenous communities to treat several ailments<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a>&#44; and their complex chemical repertory has provided useful compounds having industrial&#44; pharmaceutical and agronomic potential<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38&#44;43</span></a>&#46; Furthermore&#44; endophytes have been isolated from a species of the Burseraceae family&#44; such as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Muscodor yucatensis</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a>&#44; with potential for controlling phytopathogens&#46; Therefore&#44; the aim of this work was to test <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> the abilities of endophytes to inhibit the mycelial growth of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Fusarium oxysporum</span>&#44; by metabolite production&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> is a pathogen of many plant species that represent a major threat for the production of several agriculturally important crops&#44; such as banana&#44; carnation&#44; chickpeas&#44; dates&#44; lentils&#44; tomato&#44; and others<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a>&#46; The active component or components&#44; responsible for the antifungal activity were partially characterized following a bioassay-guided fractionation test of the liquid culture-derived crude extract from the most antagonistic endophyte&#44; to be incorporated in the future to control management programs for plant pathogen <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum&#46;</span></p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Methods</span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Recovery of endophytes and isolation</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A total of two individuals from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; heptaphyllum</span> and two from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">T&#46; rhoifolia</span> were collected in the foothill of the west Colombian Andes mountains in Aguazul&#44; Casanare&#44; Colombia &#40;N 05&#176;13&#8242;47&#46;89&#8243;&#44; W 072&#176;30&#8242;31&#46;38&#8243;&#41;&#44; a transition ecosystem between the savanna and the high Andean ecosystems&#46; Botanical specimens of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; heptaphyllum</span> &#40;Aubl&#46;&#41; Marchand &#40;COL573961&#41; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">T&#46; rhoifolia</span> &#40;Aubl&#46;&#41; Marchand &#40;COL573962&#41; were deposited in the Colombian National Herbarium&#46; From each tree&#44; the plant material &#40;from higher&#44; medium and lower strata&#41; was sampled in order to collect representative isolates from all the plants&#46; Five leaves per level were collected in a total of 60 leaflets that were bagged in sealed bags and stored in dark conditions for 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h at room temperature &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ca</span>&#46; 26<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C&#41;&#46; Petioles were then removed and the complete leaves were vigorously washed with distilled sterile water and Tween 20 &#40;0&#46;01&#37;&#41;&#44; then submerged in 70&#37; aqueous ethanol &#40;1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#41;&#44; then in 1&#37; sodium hypochlorite &#40;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#41;&#44; and then rinsed three times with sterilized distilled water&#46; Leaves were then imprinted on Potato Dextrose Agar &#40;PDA&#44; Oxoid&#44; UK&#41; for verifying the disinfection of all epiphytic microorganisms&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Each leaf was sectioned into 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> pieces&#44; and 5 randomly-chosen pieces from each leaf were seeded in Petri dishes &#40;90<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>15<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#41; containing water agar &#40;agar 1&#46;5&#37;&#41; &#40;WA&#41;&#44; 1&#47;10 PDA &#40;PDA at a 10th of the recommended concentration&#41; or PDA&#44; and then incubated at 26<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C&#46; Hyphae tips emerging from the leaf pieces were collected for three weeks&#44; and sub-cultured on PDA at 26<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C in the dark&#46; Axenic cultures were established and&#44; when a specific fungus sporulated&#44; a monosporic culture was established&#46; Those fungi that never sporulated were kept for a hyphal tip culture&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Identification of endophytes</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fungal populations were identified on the basis of cultural characteristics and morphology of fruiting bodies and spores<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;14&#44;21</span></a>&#46; Fungi were identified up to the genus level by observing the presence of conidial mycelium&#44; spore mass color&#44; distinctive reverse colony color&#44; production of diffusible pigments&#44; and spore morphology<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46; Cultures that repetitively failed to sporulate on different media were recorded as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">mycelia sterilia</span>&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Additionally&#44; those endophytes that inhibited <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> growth above 40&#37; were identified by amplification of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer &#40;ITS&#41; region&#44; using the primers ITS1 &#40;5&#8242;-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3&#8242;&#41; and ITS 4&#40;5&#8242;-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3&#8242;&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a>&#46; Amplicons were sequenced with the same primers bidirectionally a single time in Macrogen Inc&#46; &#40;Korea&#41;&#44; and the resulting sequences were aligned and edited in BioEdit v7&#46;2&#46;5<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a>&#46; The sequences were confronted with those in GeneBank database &#40;<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/">http&#58;&#47;&#47;www&#46;ncbi&#46;nlm&#46;nih&#46;gov</a>&#41;&#44; using BLASTN 2&#46;2&#46;28<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&#46; The closest match was selected and aligned using ClustalW<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a>&#46; For the phylogenetic analysis&#44; tree constructions were done with the MEGA 6&#46;0 program package<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> using the neighbor-joining method<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a>&#46; Bootstrap analysis was done using 1000-times resampled data&#46; The resulting sequences were deposited in the GenBank&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Ethyl acetate &#40;EtOAc&#41; extraction</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fungi selected for their inhibitory activity at <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> conditions against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> were reactivated in 500<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml of Potato Dextrose Broth &#40;PDB&#44; Oxoid&#44; UK&#41;&#44; Sabouraud Broth &#40;SAB&#44; Oxoid&#44; UK&#41; and yeast extract sucrose media &#40;YES&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a>&#44; and cultured in an orbital shaker under constant agitation &#40;100<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>rpm&#41; at 21<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C for 7 days&#46; After that period the culture was filtered using Whatman No&#46; 1 qualitative filter paper&#44; and mycelia were lyophilized&#46; Separately&#44; both mycelia and filtered media were mixed with EtOAc in a 1&#58;3 proportion and incubated in an orbital shaker in constant agitation &#40;100<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>rpm&#41; for 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#46; The organic phase &#40;EtOAc&#41; was separated from the mycelia by vacuum filtration using Whatman No&#46; 1 qualitative filter paper&#44; and from filtered liquid media using a decantation funnel&#46; The resulting extracts were concentrated by lyophilization&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Antifungal assays</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fungal endophytes and a phytopathogenic isolate &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> G1 isolated from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Physalis peruviana</span> &#40;Cape gooseberry&#41; available in the collection of the phytopathology laboratory at Universidad Militar Nueva Granada&#41; were cultured on PDA at 26<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C for 5 days at 26<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C in the dark&#46; In order to evaluate the possible effect of each endophyte on phytopathogen growth&#44; dual cultures were settled and each isolate was challenged with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> G1&#46; Thus&#44; a plug &#40;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm diameter&#41;&#44; which was obtained from the colonial actively growing edge of the endophyte to be tested&#44; was seeded on PDA&#44; 10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm away from the edge of a Petri dish &#40;90<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#41;&#46; At a spot distance &#40;10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#41; from the diametrally-opposed edge&#44; a similar plug of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> was seeded&#46; Six days later&#44; the effect of each endophyte on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> growth was observed and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> colony radial measurement and distance between colonies were recorded&#46; As control&#44; a plug of each organism was cultured alone&#46; These experiments were replicated three times&#46; Results were compared by the Tukey&#39;s HSD &#40;honest significant difference&#41; test&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The antifungal activity of the extracts was tested by direct TLC bioautographic detection<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a>&#46; Extracts and fractions from the selected endophytes &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41; were diluted in ethanol &#40;HPLC grade&#41; and 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;g were seeded in a single spot on a TLC Aluminum silica gel 60 Sheet 20<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>20<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm &#40;Sigma&#8211;Aldrich&#41;&#46; Then the silica sheet was sprayed with a 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>conidia&#47;ml conidial suspension of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> until the whole sheet was covered&#46; The assays were incubated in a humid chamber for 3 days&#44; and then <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> growth over the sheet was evaluated under UV-light&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Fractionation of the most active extract</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The most active extract was fractionated by preparative HPLC &#40;Shimadzu prominence LC20AD&#41;&#44; in gradient elution&#44; using a Shimadzu Premier column C-18 &#40;4&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>150<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#44; 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;m&#41; at a flow rate of 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#47;min&#46; The injection volume was 50<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;l&#46; The mobile phases consisted in methanol &#40;HPLC grade&#41; &#40;Phase A&#41; and trifluoroacetic acid 0&#46;005&#37; &#40;HPLC grade&#41; &#40;Phase B&#41;&#46; Separation was carried out for 25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#44; in a FRC 10A Shimadzu fraction collector&#46; A diode array detector &#40;DAD&#41; performed signal detection at 270<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>nm&#46; A total of 20 fractions were recovered and then concentrated by lyophilization&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">LC-MS-based chemical analysis</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Extracts and fractions were characterized by Reverse Phase Liquid Chromatography with multi-wavelength UV-VIS detection &#40;by a DAD&#41; and coupled by electrospray to a mass spectrometry detector &#40;RP-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS&#41; &#40;Shimadzu Prominence LC&#47;MS 8030&#41;&#46; Analyses were performed on a Shimadzu prominence instrument&#44; in gradient elution&#44; using a Shimadzu Premier column C-18 &#40;4&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>150<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#44; 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;m&#41;&#46; Simultaneous monitoring was carried out at 270<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>nm&#44; at a flow rate of 0&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#47;min&#46; The operating temperature was 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C and the injection volume was 20<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;l&#46; As mobile phase A 1&#37; formic acid in distilled water &#40;HPLC grade&#41; was used&#44; and acetonitrile &#40;ACN&#41; &#40;HPLC grade&#41; as mobile phase B&#59; separation was performed for 33<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#46; The mass spectrometry detector &#40;MSD&#41; consisted of an electrospray ionization &#40;ESI&#41; source and a triple quadrupole analyzer&#46; The mass spectrometry method consisted of a scan in simultaneous positive and negative ionization with an acquisition time of 2&#8211;33<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#44; a mass range of 50&#8211;2000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">m&#47;z</span>&#44; a scan speed of 1667<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;&#47;s&#44; an event time of 0&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>s&#44; nebulizer gas flow of 1&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;min&#44; 350<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C interface temperature and DL&#44; and 450<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C block temperature&#46; The drying gas flow rate was 9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;s&#46; The analysis was monitored at wavelengths between 270 and 330<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>nm&#46; Annotation and identification of the major and minor metabolites in the extract was performed by mass spectrometry- based analysis&#44; complemented with the analysis of reported metabolites&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Results</span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Recovery of endophytes</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A total of 577 endophytes were isolated from 900 cultured pieces of leaflets&#46; A subtotal of 355 endophytes were selected after the elimination of redundant morphotypes derived from the same leaflet&#46; The highest number of endophytes &#40;n<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>236&#41; was recovered from the lowest collection level for both species&#46; The ITS region of the isolates was amplified and sequenced to determine the phylogenetic relationships among them &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46; A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on a 570<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>bp sequences and isolates clustered as follows&#58; endophyte F92&#95;UMNG clustered with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Talaromyces amestolkiae</span>&#44; F18&#95;UMNG with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phyllosticta</span> sp&#46;&#44; F211&#95;UMNG with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium globosum</span>&#44; F299&#95;UMNG with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Xylaria grammica</span>&#44; and F281&#95;UMNG with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Meyerozyma</span> sp&#46; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Antifungal test</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The antifungal ability of 355 fungal endophytes against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> G1 was evaluated by the dual culture method&#46; Five endophytes reduced the area of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> growth by at least 40&#37;&#44; without colony contact &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#44; which were grouped in a single group by the Tukey&#39;s HSD test&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">EtOAc-soluble extracts obtained from two isolates&#44; F211&#95;UMNG and F281&#95;UMNG&#44; cultured in YES&#44; exerted inhibitory effect on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> by direct bioautography &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>A&#41;&#46; On comparing the inhibitory effect produced by these two isolates on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> radial growth&#44; it was found that isolate F211&#95;UMNG &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum&#41;</span> exerted a 64&#37; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> inhibition of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> colony growth arresting its growth producing with a distance between colonies of 12&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm while F281&#95;UMNG caused 45&#37; inhibition showing 5&#46;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm between colonies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0010">Figs&#46; 2 and 3</a>A&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Since the extract from F211&#95;UMNG isolate showed greater inhibitory activity against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span>&#44; it was fractionated in order to determine the most active fractions&#46; A total of 20 fractions were recovered &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>A&#41; and were additionally tested by bioautography against a conidial suspension of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span>&#46; Only fraction &#35;14 &#40;30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;g&#41; exerted inhibition of the fungus &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>B&#41;&#46; Fraction &#35;14 was analyzed by LC-MS&#44; rendering a chromatogram that included two defined signals between min 12 and min 17 &#40;peaks <span class="elsevierStyleBold">1</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleBold">3</span>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>B&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Discussion</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From the recovered isolates&#44; fungi like <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Aspergillus</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Epicoccum</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Fusarium</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Pestalotiopsis</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phomopsis</span> sp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Xylaria</span> sp&#46;&#44; among others&#44; were identified by their morphological traits and have been previously reported as common endophytes in other plants<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#8211;8&#44;22&#44;24&#44;29&#44;47&#44;49</span></a>&#46; A high diversity of fungal species were also found in leaves and stems of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Boswellia sacra</span> &#40;Burseraceae&#41;&#44; being <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Aspergillus</span> the most dominant genera&#44; which were both also isolated in this work&#46; However&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span> was also found in a relative high proportion &#40;26&#46;3&#37;&#41; represented by two species&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; spirale</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a>&#46; Screening works in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Boswellia serrata</span> exhibited <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Myrothecium verrucaria</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phoma</span> sp&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> as dominant endophytes&#44; which were also isolated in our samples&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The 355 endophytes isolated in this work were evaluated by the dual culture method against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> and only five endophytes showed inhibition against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> presumably by metabolite production because they inhibited the extension on the colony without mycelial contact and reduced the area of the phytopathogen by at least 40&#37; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46; Antagonistic endophytes were identified by amplification of a 570<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>bp &#40;ITS&#41; region as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Meyerozyma</span> spp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phyllosticta</span> spp&#46;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">T&#46; amestolkiae</span>&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">X&#46; grammic&#59;</span> such species have been reported as being endophytes and having antibiotic activity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2&#44;17&#44;33&#44;35&#44;39&#44;49</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The extract from isolate <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> F211&#95;UMNG&#44; at 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;g&#44; caused inhibit they inhibited the extension on the colony ion of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> growth &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>A&#41;&#46; Based on the available literature&#44; in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span> genus&#44; mostly in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&#44; seven signals defined by mass spectrum analysis were found to have the same <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">m&#47;z</span> value to that reported &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41;&#46; Nevertheless&#44; five isomers previously reported in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span> genus matched the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">m&#47;z</span> value detected at 38<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min &#40;peak <span class="elsevierStyleBold">5</span>&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>B&#41; and&#44; therefore they cannot be differentiated in accordance with the known MS limitations&#46; Previous studies found that <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> synthetized several molecules such as chaetoglobosins&#44; epipolythiodioxopiperazines&#44; azaphilones&#44; xanthones&#44; anthraquinones&#44; chromones&#44; depsidones&#44; terpenoids&#44; and steroids&#44; among others&#46; These types of compounds have shown antitumor&#44; cytotoxic&#44; antimalarial&#44; enzyme inhibitory&#44; antibiotic&#44; and other activities<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a>&#46; In the present study cladosporin&#44; chaetoatrosin A and chaetoviridin A &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>C&#41; were identified to be active against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span>&#44; in the EtOAc extract of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> F211&#95;UMNG&#46; These compounds were previously reported as having antifungal activity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;34&#44;45</span></a>&#46; Chaetoatrosin A acts as an inhibitor of chitin synthase II&#44; while chaetoviridin A inhibits the cholesteryl ester transfer protein &#40;CETP&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a>&#46; The action of cladosporin is no fully understood but it has been reported that it exhibited lysyl-tRNA synthetase inhibition in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; falciparum</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> and that its mode of action is different to that affecting <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#223;</span>-tubuline assembly in mitosis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0475"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a>&#46; The combination of the modes of action of the identified molecules might rationalize the observed growth inhibition of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> and bioautography test&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In conclusion&#44; five endophytes acting as antagonists of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> under <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> conditions were isolated and identified in the present study&#46; Isolate <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> F211&#95;UMNG-derived extract inhibits the growth of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span>&#44; possibly by at least three molecules having different modes of action&#44; implying its possible application in control schemes of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a>&#46; A confirmation of the results through <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> testing is required&#44; involving endophyte <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> and purifying the identified compounds for evaluating their ability in the control of the disease caused by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span>&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Ethical responsibilities</span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Protection of human and animal subjects</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Confidentiality of data</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have followed the protocols of their work center on the publication of patient data&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Right to privacy and informed consent</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no patient data appear in this article&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Funding</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The present work was financed by Vicerrector&#237;a de Investigaciones at UMNG through the project INV-CIAS-1472&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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              "identificador" => "abst0005"
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          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec869971"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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          "titulo" => "Resumen"
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          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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        4 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "Introduction"
        ]
        5 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0010"
          "titulo" => "Methods"
          "secciones" => array:6 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0015"
              "titulo" => "Recovery of endophytes and isolation"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0020"
              "titulo" => "Identification of endophytes"
            ]
            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0025"
              "titulo" => "Ethyl acetate &#40;EtOAc&#41; extraction"
            ]
            3 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0030"
              "titulo" => "Antifungal assays"
            ]
            4 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0035"
              "titulo" => "Fractionation of the most active extract"
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            5 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0040"
              "titulo" => "LC-MS-based chemical analysis"
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        6 => array:3 [
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          "titulo" => "Results"
          "secciones" => array:2 [
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              "identificador" => "sec0050"
              "titulo" => "Recovery of endophytes"
            ]
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              "titulo" => "Antifungal test"
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          "titulo" => "Discussion"
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          "titulo" => "Ethical responsibilities"
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              "identificador" => "sec0070"
              "titulo" => "Protection of human and animal subjects"
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              "identificador" => "sec0075"
              "titulo" => "Confidentiality of data"
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            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0080"
              "titulo" => "Right to privacy and informed consent"
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          ]
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        9 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0085"
          "titulo" => "Funding"
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        10 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0090"
          "titulo" => "Conflict of interest"
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        11 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xack295015"
          "titulo" => "Acknowledgements"
        ]
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          "titulo" => "References"
        ]
      ]
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2016-02-08"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2016-12-28"
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          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Endophytes"
            1 => "Burseraceae"
            2 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span>"
            3 => "Metabolites"
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          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "End&#243;fitos"
            1 => "Burseraceae"
            2 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span>"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Control of fungal pathogens is mainly addressed by the use of chemically synthesized fungicides which result in environmental pollution&#44; developing resistance after prolonged use&#46; In this context&#44; endophytes have been recognized as potential biocontrollers&#44; and also as a promising source of antifungal metabolites&#46; Therefore&#44; as part of our research on phytopathogen controllers&#44; 355 fungal endophytes were isolated from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Protium heptaphyllum</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trattinnickia rhoifolia</span> &#40;Burseraceae&#41;&#44; both ethnobotanically important tree species that produce secondary metabolites of agronomic and industrial interest&#46; Endophytes were tested by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> dual culture against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Fusarium oxysporum</span>&#44; a phytopathogen of agronomic importance&#46; Five endophytes exerted at least 40&#37; inhibition on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> growth&#46; Ethyl acetate &#40;EtOAc&#41; extracts were obtained from the most active antagonistic fungi&#44; after growing them in three different liquid media&#46; The extracts were tested against a conidial suspension of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> by direct bioautography&#46; Two extracts derived from fungi identified as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium globosum</span>&#44; F211&#95;UMNG and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Meyerozima</span> sp&#46; F281&#95;UMNG showed inhibition of pathogen growth&#46; Isolate <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&#44; F211&#95;UMNG was selected for a chemical analysis by RP-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS and antifungal molecules such as cladosporin&#44; chaetoatrosin A and chaetoviridin A were annotated and identified based on their MS data&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El control de pat&#243;genos f&#250;ngicos se basa principalmente en el uso de fungicidas de s&#237;ntesis qu&#237;mica&#44; los que pueden dar lugar a la contaminaci&#243;n del medio ambiente y el desarrollo de resistencia despu&#233;s de un uso prolongado&#46; En este contexto&#44; los end&#243;fitos han sido reconocidos como potenciales biocontroladores y tambi&#233;n como fuentes prometedoras de metabolitos secundarios antif&#250;ngicos&#46; En el marco de nuestra investigaci&#243;n sobre controladores de fitopat&#243;genos&#44; se aislaron 355 hongos end&#243;fitos de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Protium heptaphyllum</span> y <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trattinnickia rhoifolia</span> &#40;Burseraceae&#41;&#44; especies arb&#243;reas de valor etnobot&#225;nico que producen metabolitos secundarios de inter&#233;s agron&#243;mico e industrial&#46; Los end&#243;fitos fueron evaluados <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> en cultivos duales frente a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Fusarium oxysporum</span>&#44; un fitopat&#243;geno de importancia agron&#243;mica&#46; Cinco end&#243;fitos mostraron al menos un 40&#37; de inhibici&#243;n en el crecimiento de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span>&#46; Una vez determinados los hongos m&#225;s activos&#44; estos se cultivaron en 3 medios l&#237;quidos diferentes y a partir de ellos se prepar&#243; una serie de extractos solubles en acetato de etilo&#46; Los extractos fueron probados contra una suspensi&#243;n de conidios de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> por bioautograf&#237;a directa&#46; Dos extractos derivados de los hongos identificados como <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium globosum</span> &#40;F211&#95;UMNG&#41; y <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Meyerozima</span> sp&#46; &#40;F281&#95;UMNG&#41; mostraron inhibici&#243;n del crecimiento del pat&#243;geno&#46; En el extracto derivado del hongo <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> se anotaron e identificaron los compuestos antif&#250;ngicos cladosporina&#44; chaetoatrosina A y chaetoviridina A mediante el an&#225;lisis por RP-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS&#46;</p></span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Dendrogram showing the phylogenetic relationship of fungal endophytes based on the ITS region&#46; Phylogenies were inferred using the neighbor-joining analysis and trees generated in MEGA 6&#46;0 software&#46; Numbers at branch points indicate bootstrap values&#46; The scale bars represent the estimated difference in nucleotide sequence&#46; Red rectangles indicate the endophytes isolated in this work&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Inhibition of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> G1 &#40;Fox&#41; caused by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> F211&#95;UMNG &#40;Cg&#41; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Meyerozima</span> sp&#46; &#40;Mg&#41; in PDA media in dual cultures at 6 days post inoculation&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#40;A&#41; Direct bioautography of endophyte-derived EtOAc extracts against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> conidia&#46; Solid lines&#58; Procloraz 40<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ng &#40;control&#41;&#46; Medium dashed line&#58; Supernatant medium of EtOAc extract from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> F211&#95;UMNG&#46; Highly dashed line&#58; Supernatant medium of EtOAc extract from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M&#46; guilliermondii</span> F281&#95;UMNG&#46; &#40;B&#41; Bioautography of F211&#95;UMNG extract and most active fraction against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span> conidia&#46; A&#58; Fraction &#35;14&#44; B&#58; Extract 211 INI&#44; C&#58; Sportak 40<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ng&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#40;A&#41; Chromatographic profile of EtOAc extract from F211&#95;UMNG in YES medium&#46; F14&#43; arrow indicates fraction &#35;14&#46; &#40;B&#41; RP-HPLC-DAD chromatogram of fraction &#35;14&#46; Numbers indicate the annotated compounds by MS data &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41;&#46; &#40;C&#41; Structures of the identified compounds in the most active fraction from EtOAc-soluble extract of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> F 211&#95;UMNG&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Species were defined when the node was supported with &#8804;90 &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " colspan="4" align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Endophyte isolation conditions</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col">Closest match&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col">NCBI accession&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Code&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Plant&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Level&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Recovered from&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">92&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">T&#46; rhoifolia</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Low&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PDA 1&#47;10&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Talaromyces amestolkiae</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">KU184613&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">211&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; heptaphyllum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Low&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">WA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">KU184610&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">219&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; heptaphyllum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Low&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PDA 1&#47;10&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phyllosticta</span> sp&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">KU184614&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">281&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; heptaphyllum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">High&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">WA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Meyerozyma</span> sp&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">KU184611&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">299&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P&#46; heptaphyllum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Low&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">WA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Xylaria grammica</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">KU184612&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Isolation media and closest match in phylogenetic analysis by the neighbor joining method form the most active endophytes against <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F&#46; oxysporum</span></p>"
        ]
      ]
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                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Peak<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">R</span></span> &#40;min&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Compound&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Isolated from&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MW&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">13&#46;0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Cladosporin<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> CCTCC AF 206003&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">292&#46;1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">14&#46;6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Unknown&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">15&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaetopyranin<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">339&#46;2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">31&#46;0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaetoatrosin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; atrobrunneum</span> F449&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">262&#46;1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">38&#46;0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaetomugilin C<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">433&#46;7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaetomugilin N<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">433&#46;9&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">epi</span>-chaetoviridin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">433&#46;9&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chaetoviridin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">433&#46;9&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">4&#8242;-<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">epi</span>-chaetoviridin A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">433&#46;9&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">38&#46;4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Differanisole&#47;differanisole A<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46;</span> spp&#46; strain RB-001&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">278&#46;0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">39&#46;7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Unidentified &#40;Reaxys RN 19364999&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">C&#46; globosum</span> ZY-22&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">460&#46;7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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              "identificador" => "tblfn0005"
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              "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Peak number identifies the signals in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>B&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Identified compounds isolated from other <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Chaetomium</span> strains as constituents of fraction &#35;14</p>"
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    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "References"
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        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "bibs0005"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:50 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0255"
              "etiqueta" => "1"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Nonpathogenic isolates of the citrus black spot fungus&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Guignardia citricarpa</span>&#44; identified as a cosmopolitan endophyte of woody plants&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">G&#46; mangiferae</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phyllosticta capitalensis</span>&#41;"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:11 [
                            0 => "R&#46;P&#46; Baayen"
                            1 => "P&#46;J&#46;M&#46; Bonants"
                            2 => "G&#46; Verkley"
                            3 => "G&#46;C&#46; Carroll"
                            4 => "H&#46;A&#46; Van Der Aa"
                            5 => "M&#46; De Weerdt"
                            6 => "I&#46;R&#46; van Brouwershaven"
                            7 => "G&#46;C&#46; Schutte"
                            8 => "W&#46; Maccheroni"
                            9 => "C&#46;G&#46; de Blanco"
                            10 => "J&#46;L&#46; Azevedo"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1094/PHYTO.2002.92.5.464"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "Phytopathology"
                        "fecha" => "2002"
                        "volumen" => "92"
                        "paginaInicial" => "464"
                        "paginaFinal" => "477"
                        "link" => array:1 [
                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18943020"
                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0260"
              "etiqueta" => "2"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Antibiotically active metabolites from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Talaromyces wortmannii</span>&#44; an endophyte of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Aloe vera</span>"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:7 [
                            0 => "R&#46; Bara"
                            1 => "A&#46;H&#46; Aly"
                            2 => "A&#46; Pretsch"
                            3 => "V&#46; Wray"
                            4 => "B&#46; Wang"
                            5 => "P&#46; Proksch"
                            6 => "A&#46; Debbab"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1038/ja.2013.28"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
                        "tituloSerie" => "J Antibiot"
                        "fecha" => "2013"
                        "volumen" => "66"
                        "paginaInicial" => "491"
                        "paginaFinal" => "493"
                        "link" => array:1 [
                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23677029"
                            "web" => "Medline"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            2 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0265"
              "etiqueta" => "3"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Illustrated genera of imperfect fungi"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:2 [
                            0 => "H&#46; Barnett"
                            1 => "B&#46; Hunter"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Libro" => array:6 [
                        "edicion" => "4th ed&#46;"
                        "fecha" => "1998"
                        "paginaInicial" => "8"
                        "paginaFinal" => "34"
                        "editorial" => "APS Press"
                        "editorialLocalizacion" => "Minnesota"
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            3 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0270"
              "etiqueta" => "4"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
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Article information

ISSN: 03257541
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.ram.2016.12.009

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Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	1	1	2
2024 October	24	8	32
2024 September	34	3	37
2024 August	36	4	40
2024 July	35	4	39
2024 June	43	6	49
2024 May	25	3	28
2024 April	41	3	44
2024 March	45	2	47
2024 February	26	4	30
2024 January	26	9	35
2023 December	20	8	28
2023 November	49	13	62
2023 October	58	10	68
2023 September	33	4	37
2023 August	29	6	35
2023 July	32	7	39
2023 June	53	6	59
2023 May	89	14	103
2023 April	68	1	69
2023 March	51	6	57
2023 February	27	2	29
2023 January	26	10	36
2022 December	57	7	64
2022 November	41	14	55
2022 October	37	13	50
2022 September	21	17	38
2022 August	14	7	21
2022 July	33	12	45
2022 June	19	11	30
2022 May	19	11	30
2022 April	15	7	22
2022 March	48	16	64
2022 February	31	12	43
2022 January	52	5	57
2021 December	54	13	67
2021 November	35	15	50
2021 October	25	17	42
2021 September	17	8	25
2021 August	10	8	18
2021 July	12	3	15
2021 June	13	12	25
2021 May	19	7	26
2021 April	42	29	71
2021 March	30	13	43
2021 February	17	13	30
2021 January	17	23	40
2020 December	20	16	36
2020 November	23	22	45
2020 October	24	12	36
2020 September	14	17	31
2020 August	12	21	33
2020 July	14	18	32
2020 June	16	27	43
2020 May	18	14	32
2020 April	27	25	52
2020 March	30	15	45
2020 February	29	17	46
2020 January	27	16	43
2019 December	26	18	44
2019 November	27	12	39
2019 October	28	12	40
2019 September	37	12	49
2019 August	14	11	25
2019 July	23	21	44
2019 June	60	29	89
2019 May	130	42	172
2019 April	77	9	86
2019 March	16	3	19
2019 February	32	8	40
2019 January	24	5	29
2018 December	34	9	43
2018 November	43	5	48
2018 October	36	20	56
2018 September	61	6	67
2018 August	15	7	22
2018 July	20	4	24
2018 June	20	4	24
2018 May	22	12	34
2018 April	16	6	22
2018 March	20	3	23
2018 February	16	5	21
2018 January	18	5	23
2017 December	16	1	17
2017 November	22	6	28
2017 October	31	3	34
2017 September	40	2	42
2017 August	11	9	20
2017 July	2	11	13
2017 June	0	8	8
2017 May	1	10	11

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