Tolerance of dark septate endophytic fungi (DSE) to agrochemicals in vitro

array:24 ["pii" => "S0325754119300276" "issn" => "03257541" "doi" => "10.1016/j.ram.2019.02.003" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2020-01-01" "aid" => "331" "copyright" => "Asociación Argentina de Microbiología" "copyrightAnyo" => "2019" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "licencia" => "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Argent Microbiol. 2020;52:43-9" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => true "ES2" => true "LATM" => true ] "gratuito" => true "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 316 "formatos" => array:3 [ "EPUB" => 22 "HTML" => 210 "PDF" => 84 ] ] "itemSiguiente" => array:19 [ "pii" => "S032575411930029X" "issn" => "03257541" "doi" => "10.1016/j.ram.2019.02.004" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2020-01-01" "aid" => "333" "copyright" => "Asociación Argentina de Microbiología" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "licencia" => "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Argent Microbiol. 2020;52:50-60" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => true "ES2" => true "LATM" => true ] "gratuito" => true "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 144 "formatos" => array:3 [ "EPUB" => 21 "HTML" => 53 "PDF" => 70 ] ] "es" => array:14 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "ORIGINAL" "titulo" => "Desarrollo de marcadores moleculares del tipo SCAR para la identificación de Azospirillum brasilense Az39" "tienePdf" => "es" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "es" "tieneResumen" => array:3 [ 0 => "es" 1 => "es" 2 => "en" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "50" "paginaFinal" => "60" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "en" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Development of sequence characterized amplified region markers for identification of Azospirillum brasilense Az39" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "es" => true "en" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figura 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 2757 "Ancho" => 2501 "Tamanyo" => 287463 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "es" => "A y B) Electroforesis en gel de agarosa 1% de los productos de amplificación con los cebadores TP5, específicos para la cepa Az39. C y D) Electroforesis en gel de agarosa 1% de los productos de amplificación con los cebadores 16S rRNA específicos de género (Lin et al., 2011) utilizados como control positivo para las cepas Azospirillum spp. Referencias: (MM) marcador de peso molecular 100bp Trans Plus ADN Ladder; (1) A. brasilense Az39; (2) A. brasilense Sp245; (3) A. brasilense FP2; (4) A. brasilense Abv5; (5) A. brasilense Abv6; (6) A. brasilense Az 19; (7) A. brasilense Az 36; (8) A. brasilense Az 45; (9) A. brasilense Az 48; (10) A. brasilense Az 63; (11) A. brasilense Az 65; (12) Pseudomonas protegens CHA0; (13) Bradyrhizobium japonicum E109; (14) A. formosense CC-Nfb-7; (15) A. fermentarium CC-LY743; (16) A. halopraeferens Au4; (17) A. oryzae COC8; (18) A. palatum WW10; (19) A. melinis TMYC 0552; (20) A. lipoferum Sp59b; (21) A. canadense DS2; (22) A. rugosum IMMIB AFH-6; (23) A. agrícola CC-HIH038; (24) A. soli CC-Ly788; (25) A. zeae N7; (C-) control negativo (agua)." ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Anahí Coniglio, Gastón López, José Gualpa, Romina Molina, Susana Rosas, Mariana Puente, Verónica Mora, Fabricio Cassán" "autores" => array:8 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Anahí" "apellidos" => "Coniglio" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Gastón" "apellidos" => "López" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "José" "apellidos" => "Gualpa" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Romina" "apellidos" => "Molina" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Susana" "apellidos" => "Rosas" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Mariana" "apellidos" => "Puente" ] 6 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Verónica" "apellidos" => "Mora" ] 7 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Fabricio" "apellidos" => "Cassán" ] ] ] ] "resumen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Highlights" "clase" => "author-highlights" "resumen" => "<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005">•Se realizó un abordaje bioinformático destinado a la búsqueda de secuencias únicas en el genoma de Azospirillum brasilense Az39.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010">•Se logró la identificación de secuencias únicas en el genoma de A. brasilense Az39 y su amplificación específica mediante PCR.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015">•Se logró la detección de A. brasilense Az39 a partir de colonias, cultivos puros o en mezclas líquidas de más de un microorganismo.</li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020">•La metodología permitió la detección de A. brasilense Az39 en cultivos hasta una concentración de 105 UFC/ml (4,5 ng/μl ADN) o 102 UFC/ml (0,88 ng/μl ADN) o 0,098 ng/μl ADN, dependiendo del método de extracción utilizado.</li></ul>" ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S032575411930029X?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/03257541/0000005200000001/v1_202003120635/S032575411930029X/v1_202003120635/es/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:19 [ "pii" => "S0325754119300495" "issn" => "03257541" "doi" => "10.1016/j.ram.2019.03.005" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2020-01-01" "aid" => "338" "copyright" => "Asociación Argentina de Microbiología" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "licencia" => "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Argent Microbiol. 2020;52:36-42" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => true "ES2" => true "LATM" => true ] "gratuito" => true "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 175 "formatos" => array:3 [ "EPUB" => 27 "HTML" => 39 "PDF" => 109 ] ] "es" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "ORIGINAL" "titulo" => "Resistencia cruzada entre isoniacida y etionamida y su alta correlación con la mutación C-15T en aislamientos de Mycobacterium tuberculosis de Perú" "tienePdf" => "es" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "es" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "es" 1 => "en" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "36" "paginaFinal" => "42" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "en" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Cross-resistance between isoniazid and ethionamide and its strong association with mutation C-15T in Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from Peru" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "es" => true "en" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figura 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1811 "Ancho" => 2500 "Tamanyo" => 201332 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "es" => "Áreas de Lima y distritos de Lima Este con alta incidencia de tuberculosis. Se indica entre paréntesis el número de aislamientos procedentes de cada distrito analizado en el presente estudio." ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Roxana Sandoval, Mario Monteghirfo, Omar Salazar, Marco Galarza" "autores" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Roxana" "apellidos" => "Sandoval" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Mario" "apellidos" => "Monteghirfo" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Omar" "apellidos" => "Salazar" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Marco" "apellidos" => "Galarza" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0325754119300495?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/03257541/0000005200000001/v1_202003120635/S0325754119300495/v1_202003120635/es/main.assets" ] "en" => array:20 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "Original article" "titulo" => "Tolerance of dark septate endophytic fungi (DSE) to agrochemicals in vitro" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "43" "paginaFinal" => "49" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Federico N. Spagnoletti, Viviana M. Chiocchio" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Federico N." "apellidos" => "Spagnoletti" ] 1 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Viviana M." "apellidos" => "Chiocchio" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "chiocchi@agro.uba.ar" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "*" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Cátedra de Microbiología Agrícola, Facultad de Agronomía-UBA, Instituto de Investigaciones en Biociencias Agrícolas y Ambientales-CONICET, Av. San Martín 4453, (DSE 1427) CABA, Argentina" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Tolerancia de hongos endofíticos septados oscuros a agroquímicos in vitro" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 627 "Ancho" => 1255 "Tamanyo" => 51614 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Morphology of DSE's colony grown in MEA plate. (A) Alternaria alternata. (B) Cochliobolus sp." ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "IntroductionAgricultural practices include the application of different pesticides to maintain crop performance by controlling insects, diseases and weeds. In nature, pesticide residues are subjected to physical, chemical and biochemical degradation processes, although they persist in the environment due to their high stability and water solubility<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310">22</a>. The inadequate use of pesticides can affect microorganisms and their activity, causing alterations in the biological processes that impact on soil fertility and, consequently, on crop productivity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240">8</a>. Pesticides can reduce the production of microbial biomass; this change may cause alterations in the mineralization of organic matter, redox reactions, denitrification, nitrification, ammonification, and methanogenesis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265">13</a>. One of the most widely used pesticide is glyphosate, a potent, broad spectrum, non-selective, post-emergent herbicide that is capable of controlling 97% of the weeds. Glyphosate is generally used along with cypermethrin, an insecticide belonging to the family of pyrethroids and widely used in non-tillage systems. Among the fungicides, carbendazym is a systemic fungicide used for controlling a broad range of fungi affecting crops.In the soil environment there are different types of microorganisms, such as fungi that participate actively in all the processes of transformation of organic matter. Fungal endophytes are organisms that colonize plant tissues during a specific period of their life cycle but cause no symptoms of tissue damage to their hosts<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345">29</a>. Among this highly diverse group of endophytic fungi, dark septate endophytes (DSE) have received much attention in the recent years<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0335">27,31</a>. The genera Alternaria sp. and Curvularia sp. are widely known as pathogenic fungi in several cereals of commercial value<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205">1,40</a>; however, species of the genera Alternaria and Curvularia (teleomorph: Cochliobolus) have been found to colonize grasses, playing a role as DSE fungi and promoting plant growth<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0270">14,24</a>. These DSE fungi are not thought to be pathogenic, as they are observed on healthy plants<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215">3</a>.Colonization patterns by DSE seem to be different according to the plant host and the cultivation system<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305">21</a>. These fungi often inhabit oligotrophic soils that are associated with the roots of hundreds of plant species in all climate regions and major biome types<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365">33</a> as well as promoters of plant growth under greenhouse conditions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">27</a>. Dark septate endophytes are able to hydrolyze major C, N and P polymers into usable subunits and therefore could provide N and P to the host plant<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225">5</a>. Newsham<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305">21</a> performed a meta-analysis of independent studies to assess the inoculation of DSE in different crops, concluding that the contents of N and P in inoculated plant biomass were higher compared to non-inoculated plants. Conversely, another meta-analysis suggested negative to neutral effects of DSE inoculations<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290">18</a>.Wheat is one of the winter cereals of major importance in Latin America. Agricultural production is one of the fundamental economic activities of Argentina, which is among the main world producers of crops such as soybeans, wheat, sunflower and corn. In Argentina, the production area destined for the wheat crop was estimated in 5.95 million hectares, producing 18 million tons of the cereal<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295">19</a>. Most studies have evaluated mycorrhizal and DSE root colonization in different hosts and Argentine regions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0285">17,28</a>. Nevertheless, little information is available about the biology of DSE isolated from cereals<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0335">27,31</a>. The widespread use of pesticides has raised concerns about their potential impact on microbial communities and in this sense there are no studies evaluating the effects of agrochemicals on DSE. Therefore, the aim of this study is to isolate DSE from wheat roots and to assess the tolerance of isolated strains to different chemicals commonly used in agricultural practices.Materials and methodsThirty wheat plants were randomly collected from two sites located in Arenales and Ferré in July 2011 (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina). The plants were at phenological stage Z5. Samples were transported to the laboratory and placed in a cold chamber at 4°C until their use. The roots were washed under tap water and sterilized superficially by immersing them in 70% ethanol for 2min followed by 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for 3min and thoroughly rinsed five times with sterile distilled water. Subsequently, twenty five root pieces (5mm) of each plant were placed into drops of Gel-Gro (ICN Biochemicals, USA) with streptomycin and tetracycline hydrochloride 1% (Sigma–Aldrich, USA) in sterile Petri Plates 30 Plates<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350">30</a>. The root pieces were incubated in the dark at 25°C and were periodically observed under a stereoscopic microscope (Nikon H550S, Japan). The segments of roots in which fungal growth was observed were placed on plates containing Malt Extract Agar (MEA) and cultured on such medium at 25°C, thereby obtaining several isolates. The endophytic nature of the thirty isolates was corroborated following the test of resynthesis (Koch's postulates) under greenhouse conditions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355">31</a>. Five isolates were identified following classical<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0250">10,36</a> and molecular methodologies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355">31</a>. The strains were deposited at the Fungi Bank of the Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de Buenos Aires<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">27</a>. Two isolates were selected for this assay due to their extracellular enzymatic production<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375">35</a>, their phosphorus solubilization<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355">31</a> and their tolerance to different sodium salts<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360">32</a>.A culture of each strain grown on MEA for 7 days at 25°C was used as inoculum to evaluate their tolerance to pesticides. Subsequently, two successive picks were conducted on basal salt medium (BSM)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275">15</a> with the purpose of causing them a nutritional stress (starvation). The BSM containing the herbicide (glyphosate), the fungicide (carbendazim) or the insecticide (cypermethrin) was used in an agronomic common dose (AD), 2 AD and 10 AD. Doses per Petri dish were 0.20ppm, 0.40ppm and 2ppm for the herbicide; 18.12ppm, 36.25ppm and 181.25ppm for the fungicide; and 2.02ppm, 4.04ppm and 20.2ppm for the insecticide respectively. The control treatment was BSM medium plus sucrose (2%). The inoculum was standardized using 5mm-diameter disks obtained from the zone with active growth of a colony with 7 days of growth for all strains and all tested media. Each agrochemical dose and its respective control were tested in quintuplicate. Fungal growth was assessed periodically from the third day by measuring the colony diameter at 12 days. Fungal growth rates were analyzed using the following formula<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330">26</a>: Growth rate=(Fd−Id)/(Ft−), where: Fd is the final diameter (cm), Id is the initial diameter (cm), Ft is the final time (days) and It is the initial time (days).Moreover, the inhibition percentage was calculated for each fungi and each agrochemical at 6 and 12 days using the following formula: Inhibition (%)=(Cd−Td)/Cd×100, where: Cd is the mean colony diameter in the control treatment (cm) and Td is the mean colony diameter in the agrochemical treatment (cm).Statistical analysisA two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with DSE strains (A. alternata and Cochliobolus sp.) and agrochemical type (4 levels: 0; AD; 2 AD; 10 AD) as factors was performed from the data obtained on growth parameters and effective concentration (EC 50) using the statistical software Infostat Professional version 2.0. Normality and homogeneity of variance were tested. Comparisons were made using the Tukey's test with p<0.05.ResultsThe physicochemical properties of the soil (Typic Argiudoll) were: organic carbon 1.7%, available phosphorous 15.0mg/kg (Kurtz and Bray No. 1 method), pH 6.2, electrical conductivity 0.5d/Sm clay 27.5%, silt 50.5% and sand 22%. <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Figure 1</a> shows the morphology of the DSE colony of A. alternata and Cochliobolus sp.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia>The strain Cochliobolus sp. reached a diameter of 75mm of the colony after 12 days of growth while A. alternata completed the culture dish (90mm) after 9 days (data not shown). There was significant change in the kinetics of growth of the strains by adding the different kinds of agrochemicals to the medium. The results from the two-way analysis of variance showed that there were significant interactions between the DSE strains and the agrochemicals in growth rate (p<0.0001). Therefore, this interaction was further analyzed. <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> shows that the growth of A. alternata was significantly faster than that of Cochliobolus sp. in the control treatment and was less affected than Cochliobolus sp. when the agrochemicals were added.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia>The presence of glyphosate reduced the growth rate of both DSE strains. A. alternata showed significant differences in AD and 2 AD regarding Cochliobolus sp.; however, when the dose was increased to 10 AD, no differences were found between both strains.The fungicide carbendazim was the most tolerated agrochemical by the DSE strains. The growth rate of A. alternata was reduced by the addition of carbendazim as its dose increased in the solid media. No differences were found in 2 AD between both fungi (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>). On the other hand, the insecticide (cypermethrin) was the most toxic agrochemical on growth rate. A. alternata reduced its growth rate as the dose of cypermethrin increased in the media, while a dose equal to or greater than 2 AD inhibited the growth of Cochliobolus sp. (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>).The percentages of growth inhibition are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>A–C. The herbicide (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>A) increased this parameter (p<0.05) in all the agrochemicals and doses tested for both fungi and on both days evaluated (day 6 and day 12). The fungicide increased the growth inhibition percentage of Cochliobolus sp.; however, an induction of the growth of A.alternata was observed when the fungicide was added at AD and 2 AD evaluated at 6 days. In these doses, at the end of the growth (day 12) no significant differences were detected with respect to the control treatment. For both evaluation days, the addition of carbendazim at 10 AD generated a significant increase (p<0.05) in the inhibition percentage (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>B).<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>C shows the percentages of growth inhibition generated by the insecticide. The DSE Cochliobolus sp. exhibited significant inhibition when the AD was placed in the culture medium (p<0.05); however, no changes were detected between 2 AD and 10 AD. On the contrary, A. alternata recorded increases in inhibition in all the doses studied (p<0.05).The concentrations of the agrochemicals that caused a 50% reduction in fungal growth compared to the control (effective concentration: EC 50) varied depending on the agrochemical type (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>). In all the agrochemicals analyzed, the fungus A. alternata was the most tolerant, presenting higher EC 50. The insecticide was the agrochemical that caused the greatest effect on DSE growth, followed by the herbicide. The fungicide proved to be the least toxic agrochemical for these fungi (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>). Cochliobolus sp. did not differ significantly from A. alternata in the EC 50 against carbendazim.<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia>DiscussionThis study evaluates the tolerance of two DSE fungi to different agrochemicals. The tested DSE fungi were isolates of A.alternata and Cochliobolus sp. It is known that these fungi are grass pathogens; however, several studies have shown that they can also be found in the roots as DSE as non-pathogenic fungi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0215">3,37</a>. Therefore, the fungal species classified as non-pathogenic cause disease symptoms in certain host plants but are neutral or beneficial in other hosts.Moreover, although pesticides are designed to be as specific as possible, they have effects on non-target fungal organisms. In accordance with our results, glyphosate (using equivalent herbicide concentrations) had an in vitro toxic effect on culturable mycobiota (Aspergillus section Flavi) strains from agricultural soils<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230">6</a>. Likewise, other authors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260">12</a> found a reduction of microbial biomass at a higher glyphosate concentration and a temporary inhibitory effect at recommended field doses. Furthermore, effects of glyphosate on soil microbial communities and its mineralization in soils after various applications of this herbicide have been found<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280">16</a>. A recent study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255">11</a> also demonstrated behavioral differences between glyphosate and its major metabolite, AMPA, related to the physical properties of saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and soil moisture. Other authors found that glyphosate affects arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi due to a reduction in spore viability, root colonization and arbuscule percentage<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245">9</a>. However, DSEs are more tolerant to different types of stress than other soil fungi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315">23</a>. This could be due to the fact that the chemical compounds act effectively on the mycelium, while spores and chlamydospores are more resistant to these compounds due to their low activity given their water content and the presence of a large amount of unsaturated fatty acids<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220">4</a>.There is much less research on the effect of carbendazim on fungi. However, this fungicide has detrimental effects to fungal and bacterial biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma virens, Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas fluorescens<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300">20</a>. In this research, we found that DSE strains have the potential to tolerate high concentrations (181.25ppm, 10 AD) of fungicide; these results are in accordance with those of others authors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210">2</a>. One study showed that the type of fungicide applied to the soil must be seriously considered as the authors detected negative effects on Rhizophagus fasciculatus (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) with benomyl (systemic benzimidazole); however, they found no effects when captan (non-systemic fungicide)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235">7</a> was applied. Nevertheless, our results showed high tolerance of DSE fungi against carbendazim, which is a derivative of benomyl. Bipolaris tetramera and A. alternata have potential to tolerate and degrade 100ppm of carbendazim in vitro<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390">38</a>. In accordance with that article, we found negative inhibition values in agronomic doses, 2 AD and no differences compared with control. These results would indicate an Alternaria sp. promotion growth when grown with the addition of carbendazim.In the case of cypermethrin, there are studies that demonstrate that this insecticide caused a negative effect on soil enzymatic activities and microbial diversity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370">34</a>. Our DSE strains showed low cypermethrin tolerance, high inhibition percentage and low EC50. Nevertheless, a study revealed that when the pesticide is applied on pepper plants there is an increase in bacterial abundance and a change in the composition of the community of the Firmicutes phylum to Bacteroidetes and γ-Proteobacteria phyla<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395">39</a>. Other authors showed the potential of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Monilochaetes and Fusarium strains in the biodegradation of 50–150ppm of this pyrethroid<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325">25</a>.This research has shown that agrochemicals commonly used in agriculture have detrimental effects on the growth of DSE fungi, even when these agrochemicals are used at recommended doses; however, these negative effects vary according to the agrochemical considered. Moreover, this paper makes evident that DSE response to this type of toxin depends on the studied species of DSE fungus. This research is a contribution to a better understanding of the behavior of DSE against xenobiotics, evaluating the tolerance and/or their use as a source of nutrients.ConclusionThe DSE A. alternata tolerates all three agrochemicals at the tested doses while Cochliobolus sp. is glyphosate and carbendazim-tolerant in all three doses but shows no tolerance to cypermethrin when the agronomic dose is twofold. In general, there is a decrease in the growth of the strains when increasing the dose of the agrochemicals studied.Conflict of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:13 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres1316953" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1215372" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres1316952" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1215371" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Materials and methods" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Statistical analysis" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Results" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Discussion" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xack453985" "titulo" => "Acknowledgments" ] 12 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2018-06-27" "fechaAceptado" => "2019-02-21" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1215372" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Dark septate endophytic fungus (DSE)" 1 => "Wheat" 2 => "Agrochemicals" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1215371" "palabras" => array:3 [ 0 => "Hongos endófitos septados oscuros (DSE)" 1 => "Trigo" 2 => "Agroquímicos" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "Dark septate endophytes (DSE) are a heterogeneous group of fungi, mostly belonging to the Phylum Ascomycota, that are involved in a mutualistic symbiosis with plant roots. The aim of this study is to evaluate the behavior of two strains of DSE isolated from wheat roots of two cropping areas in the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, against some agrochemicals. Of all the isolates obtained, two strains were identified as Alternaria alternata and Cochliobolus sp. These DSE were found to be tolerant to glyphosate, carbendazim and cypermethrin when evaluated at the recommended agronomic dose (AD), 2 AD and, in some cases, 10 AD. This work contributes to the study of the biology of this group of fungi and their tolerance in the presence of xenobiotics widely used in agriculture." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "Los endófitos septados oscuros (DSE) son un grupo heterogéneo de hongos que participan de una simbiosis mutualista con raíces de plantas, perteneciendo principalmente al PhylumAscomycota. El objetivo de este estudio fue aislar DSE de raíces de trigo proveniente de dos áreas de cultivo de la provincia de Buenos Aires y evaluar el comportamiento de dos cepas de DSE aisladas de raíces de trigo frente a algunos agroquímicos en dos áreas de cultivo de la provincia de Buenos Aires. De todos los aislamientos obtenidos se seleccionaron dos cepas que se identificaron como Alternaria alternata y Cochliobolus sp. Se encontró que estos DSE son tolerantes al glifosato, el carbendazim y la cipermetrina, evaluados a las dosis agronómicas recomendadas (AD), a 2x AD y, en algunos casos, a 10x AD. Este trabajo contribuye al conocimiento de la biología de este grupo de hongos y su tolerancia a xenobióticos ampliamente utilizados en la agricultura." ] ] "multimedia" => array:4 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 627 "Ancho" => 1255 "Tamanyo" => 51614 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Morphology of DSE's colony grown in MEA plate. (A) Alternaria alternata. (B) Cochliobolus sp." ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 739 "Ancho" => 1439 "Tamanyo" => 58714 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Effective concentration (EC 50), the concentrations of the herbicide, fungicide and insecticide that caused a 50% reduction in fungal growth compared to the control. Means±SD (n=5). Different letters differ significantly (p<0.05)." ] ] 2 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at1" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "4 levels of agrochemicals: 0; AD (agronomic dose); 2 AD; 10 AD. Means±SD (n=5). Different letters differ significantly (p<0.05)." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Agrochemicals \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Treatments \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " colspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">DSE strains</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Cochliobolus sp \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Alternaria alternata \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="4" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Glyphosate</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Control \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.53±0.06 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.58±0.01 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.25±0.01 e \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.42±0.02 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.22±0.01 f \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.37±0.03 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">10 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.05±0.01g \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.03±0.00g \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="4" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Carbendazim</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Control \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.53±0.06 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.58±0.01 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.42±0.00 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.51±0.00 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.46±0.05 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.46±0.02 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">10 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.21±0.05 f \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.33±0.02 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="4" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Cypermethrin</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Control \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.53±0.06 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.58±0.01 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.19±0.04 f \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.54±0.02 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00g \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.20±0.00 f \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">10 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00g \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.03±0.00g \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab2257471.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Growth rate of Cochliobolus sp. and Alternariaalternata (DSE strains). Comparison between DSE strains A. alternata and Cochliobolus sp. and agrochemical type" ] ] 3 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at2" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "Each value represents the mean value±SD (n=5). Different letters differ significantly (p<0.05)." "tablatextoimagen" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">(A) Strains \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Day \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " colspan="4" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Glyphosate</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">2 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">10 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Cochliobolus sp.</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">36.70±2.14 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">41.53±0.91 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">78.68±1.25 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">44.28±1.90 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">50.56±1.23 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">84.29±2.25 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">A.alternata</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">35.86±3.25 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">46.89±1.98 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">78.96±1.30 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">24.95±3.68 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">36.00±3.14 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">81.87±3.95 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab2257470.png" ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">(B) Strains \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Day \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " colspan="4" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Carbendazim</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">2 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">10 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Cochliobolus sp.</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6.37±3.42 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">10.76±3.59 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">35.16±4.32 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">11.70±1.21 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12.37±4.28 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">49.67±2.06 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">A.alternata</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">−4.31±1.05 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">−2.82±1.96 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">36.03±2.14 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">47.62±2.18 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab2257473.png" ] ] 2 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">(C) Strains \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Day \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " colspan="4" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Cypermethrin</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">0 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">2 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">10 AD \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Cochliobolus sp.</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">59.12±3.24 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">84.61±0.00 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">84.61±0.00 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">59.87±4.48 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">90.60±0.00 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">90.60±0.00 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">A. alternata</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">26.03±0.94 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">64.24±2.79 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">79.82±0.77 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.00±0.00 a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6.50±3.73 b \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">62.12±2.74 c \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">83.12±0.00 d \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab2257472.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Inhibition of growth rate of Cochliobolus sp. and Alternaria sp. 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Tolerancia de hongos endofíticos septados oscuros a agroquímicos in vitro

Federico N. Spagnoletti, Viviana M. Chiocchio

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chiocchi@agro.uba.ar

Corresponding author.

Cátedra de Microbiología Agrícola, Facultad de Agronomía-UBA, Instituto de Investigaciones en Biociencias Agrícolas y Ambientales-CONICET, Av. San Martín 4453, (DSE 1427) CABA, Argentina

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      "titulo" => "Desarrollo de marcadores moleculares del tipo SCAR para la identificaci&#243;n de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Azospirillum brasilense</span> Az39"
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            "es" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A y B&#41; Electroforesis en gel de agarosa 1&#37; de los productos de amplificaci&#243;n con los cebadores TP5&#44; espec&#237;ficos para la cepa Az39&#46; C y D&#41; Electroforesis en gel de agarosa 1&#37; de los productos de amplificaci&#243;n con los cebadores 16S rRNA espec&#237;ficos de g&#233;nero &#40;Lin et al&#46;&#44; 2011&#41; utilizados como control positivo para las cepas <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Azospirillum</span> spp&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Referencias</span>&#58; &#40;MM&#41; marcador de peso molecular 100<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>bp Trans Plus ADN Ladder&#59; &#40;1&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az39&#59; &#40;2&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Sp245&#59; &#40;3&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> FP2&#59; &#40;4&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Abv5&#59; &#40;5&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Abv6&#59; &#40;6&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az 19&#59; &#40;7&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az 36&#59; &#40;8&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az 45&#59; &#40;9&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az 48&#59; &#40;10&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az 63&#59; &#40;11&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az 65&#59; &#40;12&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Pseudomonas protegens</span> CHA0&#59; &#40;13&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bradyrhizobium japonicum</span> E109&#59; &#40;14&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; formosense</span> CC-Nfb-7&#59; &#40;15&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; fermentarium</span> CC-LY743&#59; &#40;16&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; halopraeferens</span> Au4&#59; &#40;17&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; oryzae</span> COC8&#59; &#40;18&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; palatum</span> WW10&#59; &#40;19&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; melinis</span> TMYC 0552&#59; &#40;20&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; lipoferum</span> Sp59b&#59; &#40;21&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; canadense</span> DS2&#59; &#40;22&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; rugosum</span> IMMIB AFH-6&#59; &#40;23&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; agr&#237;cola</span> CC-HIH038&#59; &#40;24&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; soli</span> CC-Ly788&#59; &#40;25&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; zeae</span> N7&#59; &#40;C-&#41; control negativo &#40;agua&#41;&#46;</p>"
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          "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se realiz&#243; un abordaje bioinform&#225;tico destinado a la b&#250;squeda de secuencias &#250;nicas en el genoma de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Azospirillum brasilense</span> Az39&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se logr&#243; la identificaci&#243;n de secuencias &#250;nicas en el genoma de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az39 y su amplificaci&#243;n espec&#237;fica mediante PCR&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Se logr&#243; la detecci&#243;n de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az39 a partir de colonias&#44; cultivos puros o en mezclas l&#237;quidas de m&#225;s de un microorganismo&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">&#8226;</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">La metodolog&#237;a permiti&#243; la detecci&#243;n de <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; brasilense</span> Az39 en cultivos hasta una concentraci&#243;n de 10<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span> UFC&#47;ml &#40;4&#44;5 ng&#47;&#956;l ADN&#41; o 10<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> UFC&#47;ml &#40;0&#44;88 ng&#47;&#956;l ADN&#41; o 0&#44;098 ng&#47;&#956;l ADN&#44; dependiendo del m&#233;todo de extracci&#243;n utilizado&#46;</p></li></ul></p></span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Morphology of DSE&#39;s colony grown in MEA plate&#46; &#40;A&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria alternata</span>&#46; &#40;B&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;</p>"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Agricultural practices include the application of different pesticides to maintain crop performance by controlling insects&#44; diseases and weeds&#46; In nature&#44; pesticide residues are subjected to physical&#44; chemical and biochemical degradation processes&#44; although they persist in the environment due to their high stability and water solubility<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a>&#46; The inadequate use of pesticides can affect microorganisms and their activity&#44; causing alterations in the biological processes that impact on soil fertility and&#44; consequently&#44; on crop productivity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a>&#46; Pesticides can reduce the production of microbial biomass&#59; this change may cause alterations in the mineralization of organic matter&#44; redox reactions&#44; denitrification&#44; nitrification&#44; ammonification&#44; and methanogenesis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a>&#46; One of the most widely used pesticide is glyphosate&#44; a potent&#44; broad spectrum&#44; non-selective&#44; post-emergent herbicide that is capable of controlling 97&#37; of the weeds&#46; Glyphosate is generally used along with cypermethrin&#44; an insecticide belonging to the family of pyrethroids and widely used in non-tillage systems&#46; Among the fungicides&#44; carbendazym is a systemic fungicide used for controlling a broad range of fungi affecting crops&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the soil environment there are different types of microorganisms&#44; such as fungi that participate actively in all the processes of transformation of organic matter&#46; Fungal endophytes are organisms that colonize plant tissues during a specific period of their life cycle but cause no symptoms of tissue damage to their hosts<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a>&#46; Among this highly diverse group of endophytic fungi&#44; dark septate endophytes &#40;DSE&#41; have received much attention in the recent years<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#44;31</span></a>&#46; The genera <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria</span> sp&#46; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Curvularia</span> sp&#46; are widely known as pathogenic fungi in several cereals of commercial value<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;40</span></a>&#59; however&#44; species of the genera <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Curvularia</span> &#40;teleomorph&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span>&#41; have been found to colonize grasses&#44; playing a role as DSE fungi and promoting plant growth<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;24</span></a>&#46; These DSE fungi are not thought to be pathogenic&#44; as they are observed on healthy plants<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Colonization patterns by DSE seem to be different according to the plant host and the cultivation system<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a>&#46; These fungi often inhabit oligotrophic soils that are associated with the roots of hundreds of plant species in all climate regions and major biome types<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> as well as promoters of plant growth under greenhouse conditions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a>&#46; Dark septate endophytes are able to hydrolyze major C&#44; N and P polymers into usable subunits and therefore could provide N and P to the host plant<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a>&#46; Newsham<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> performed a meta-analysis of independent studies to assess the inoculation of DSE in different crops&#44; concluding that the contents of N and P in inoculated plant biomass were higher compared to non-inoculated plants&#46; Conversely&#44; another meta-analysis suggested negative to neutral effects of DSE inoculations<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Wheat is one of the winter cereals of major importance in Latin America&#46; Agricultural production is one of the fundamental economic activities of Argentina&#44; which is among the main world producers of crops such as soybeans&#44; wheat&#44; sunflower and corn&#46; In Argentina&#44; the production area destined for the wheat crop was estimated in 5&#46;95 million hectares&#44; producing 18 million tons of the cereal<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a>&#46; Most studies have evaluated mycorrhizal and DSE root colonization in different hosts and Argentine regions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;28</span></a>&#46; Nevertheless&#44; little information is available about the biology of DSE isolated from cereals<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#44;31</span></a>&#46; The widespread use of pesticides has raised concerns about their potential impact on microbial communities and in this sense there are no studies evaluating the effects of agrochemicals on DSE&#46; Therefore&#44; the aim of this study is to isolate DSE from wheat roots and to assess the tolerance of isolated strains to different chemicals commonly used in agricultural practices&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Materials and methods</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thirty wheat plants were randomly collected from two sites located in Arenales and Ferr&#233; in July 2011 &#40;Buenos Aires Province&#44; Argentina&#41;&#46; The plants were at phenological stage Z5&#46; Samples were transported to the laboratory and placed in a cold chamber at 4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C until their use&#46; The roots were washed under tap water and sterilized superficially by immersing them in 70&#37; ethanol for 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min followed by 1&#37; sodium hypochlorite &#40;NaOCl&#41; for 3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min and thoroughly rinsed five times with sterile distilled water&#46; Subsequently&#44; twenty five root pieces &#40;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#41; of each plant were placed into drops of Gel-Gro &#40;ICN Biochemicals&#44; USA&#41; with streptomycin and tetracycline hydrochloride 1&#37; &#40;Sigma&#8211;Aldrich&#44; USA&#41; in sterile Petri Plates 30 Plates<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a>&#46; The root pieces were incubated in the dark at 25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C and were periodically observed under a stereoscopic microscope &#40;Nikon H550S&#44; Japan&#41;&#46; The segments of roots in which fungal growth was observed were placed on plates containing Malt Extract Agar &#40;MEA&#41; and cultured on such medium at 25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C&#44; thereby obtaining several isolates&#46; The endophytic nature of the thirty isolates was corroborated following the test of resynthesis &#40;Koch&#39;s postulates&#41; under greenhouse conditions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&#46; Five isolates were identified following classical<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;36</span></a> and molecular methodologies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&#46; The strains were deposited at the Fungi Bank of the Facultad de Agronom&#237;a&#44; Universidad de Buenos Aires<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a>&#46; Two isolates were selected for this assay due to their extracellular enzymatic production<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a>&#44; their phosphorus solubilization<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> and their tolerance to different sodium salts<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A culture of each strain grown on MEA for 7 days at 25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C was used as inoculum to evaluate their tolerance to pesticides&#46; Subsequently&#44; two successive picks were conducted on basal salt medium &#40;BSM&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> with the purpose of causing them a nutritional stress &#40;starvation&#41;&#46; The BSM containing the herbicide &#40;glyphosate&#41;&#44; the fungicide &#40;carbendazim&#41; or the insecticide &#40;cypermethrin&#41; was used in an agronomic common dose &#40;AD&#41;&#44; 2 AD and 10 AD&#46; Doses per Petri dish were 0&#46;20<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm&#44; 0&#46;40<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm and 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm for the herbicide&#59; 18&#46;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm&#44; 36&#46;25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm and 181&#46;25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm for the fungicide&#59; and 2&#46;02<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm&#44; 4&#46;04<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm and 20&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm for the insecticide respectively&#46; The control treatment was BSM medium plus sucrose &#40;2&#37;&#41;&#46; The inoculum was standardized using 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm-diameter disks obtained from the zone with active growth of a colony with 7 days of growth for all strains and all tested media&#46; Each agrochemical dose and its respective control were tested in quintuplicate&#46; Fungal growth was assessed periodically from the third day by measuring the colony diameter at 12 days&#46; Fungal growth rates were analyzed using the following formula<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a>&#58; Growth rate<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#40;Fd<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Id&#41;&#47;&#40;Ft<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#41;&#44; where&#58; Fd is the final diameter &#40;cm&#41;&#44; Id is the initial diameter &#40;cm&#41;&#44; Ft is the final time &#40;days&#41; and It is the initial time &#40;days&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Moreover&#44; the inhibition percentage was calculated for each fungi and each agrochemical at 6 and 12 days using the following formula&#58; Inhibition &#40;&#37;&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#40;Cd<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Td&#41;&#47;Cd<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#215;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>100&#44; where&#58; Cd is the mean colony diameter in the control treatment &#40;cm&#41; and Td is the mean colony diameter in the agrochemical treatment &#40;cm&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Statistical analysis</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A two-way analysis of variance &#40;ANOVA&#41; with DSE strains &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;&#41; and agrochemical type &#40;4 levels&#58; 0&#59; AD&#59; 2 AD&#59; 10 AD&#41; as factors was performed from the data obtained on growth parameters and effective concentration &#40;EC 50&#41; using the statistical software Infostat Professional version 2&#46;0&#46; Normality and homogeneity of variance were tested&#46; Comparisons were made using the Tukey&#39;s test with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Results</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The physicochemical properties of the soil &#40;Typic Argiudoll&#41; were&#58; organic carbon 1&#46;7&#37;&#44; available phosphorous 15&#46;0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg &#40;Kurtz and Bray No&#46; 1 method&#41;&#44; pH 6&#46;2&#44; electrical conductivity 0&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>d&#47;Sm clay 27&#46;5&#37;&#44; silt 50&#46;5&#37; and sand 22&#37;&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Figure 1</a> shows the morphology of the DSE colony of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The strain <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; reached a diameter of 75<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm of the colony after 12 days of growth while <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> completed the culture dish &#40;90<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#41; after 9 days &#40;data not shown&#41;&#46; There was significant change in the kinetics of growth of the strains by adding the different kinds of agrochemicals to the medium&#46; The results from the two-way analysis of variance showed that there were significant interactions between the DSE strains and the agrochemicals in growth rate &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;0001&#41;&#46; Therefore&#44; this interaction was further analyzed&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> shows that the growth of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> was significantly faster than that of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; in the control treatment and was less affected than <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; when the agrochemicals were added&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The presence of glyphosate reduced the growth rate of both DSE strains&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> showed significant differences in AD and 2 AD regarding <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;&#59; however&#44; when the dose was increased to 10 AD&#44; no differences were found between both strains&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The fungicide carbendazim was the most tolerated agrochemical by the DSE strains&#46; The growth rate of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> was reduced by the addition of carbendazim as its dose increased in the solid media&#46; No differences were found in 2 AD between both fungi &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; On the other hand&#44; the insecticide &#40;cypermethrin&#41; was the most toxic agrochemical on growth rate&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> reduced its growth rate as the dose of cypermethrin increased in the media&#44; while a dose equal to or greater than 2 AD inhibited the growth of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The percentages of growth inhibition are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>A&#8211;C&#46; The herbicide &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>A&#41; increased this parameter &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41; in all the agrochemicals and doses tested for both fungi and on both days evaluated &#40;day 6 and day 12&#41;&#46; The fungicide increased the growth inhibition percentage of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;&#59; however&#44; an induction of the growth of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">alternata</span> was observed when the fungicide was added at AD and 2 AD evaluated at 6 days&#46; In these doses&#44; at the end of the growth &#40;day 12&#41; no significant differences were detected with respect to the control treatment&#46; For both evaluation days&#44; the addition of carbendazim at 10 AD generated a significant increase &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41; in the inhibition percentage &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>B&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>C shows the percentages of growth inhibition generated by the insecticide&#46; The DSE <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; exhibited significant inhibition when the AD was placed in the culture medium &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;&#59; however&#44; no changes were detected between 2 AD and 10 AD&#46; On the contrary&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> recorded increases in inhibition in all the doses studied &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The concentrations of the agrochemicals that caused a 50&#37; reduction in fungal growth compared to the control &#40;effective concentration&#58; EC 50&#41; varied depending on the agrochemical type &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46; In all the agrochemicals analyzed&#44; the fungus <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> was the most tolerant&#44; presenting higher EC 50&#46; The insecticide was the agrochemical that caused the greatest effect on DSE growth&#44; followed by the herbicide&#46; The fungicide proved to be the least toxic agrochemical for these fungi &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; did not differ significantly from <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> in the EC 50 against carbendazim&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Discussion</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study evaluates the tolerance of two DSE fungi to different agrochemicals&#46; The tested DSE fungi were isolates of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">alternata</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; It is known that these fungi are grass pathogens&#59; however&#44; several studies have shown that they can also be found in the roots as DSE as non-pathogenic fungi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;37</span></a>&#46; Therefore&#44; the fungal species classified as non-pathogenic cause disease symptoms in certain host plants but are neutral or beneficial in other hosts&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Moreover&#44; although pesticides are designed to be as specific as possible&#44; they have effects on non-target fungal organisms&#46; In accordance with our results&#44; glyphosate &#40;using equivalent herbicide concentrations&#41; had an <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> toxic effect on culturable mycobiota &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Aspergillus</span> section Flavi&#41; strains from agricultural soils<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a>&#46; Likewise&#44; other authors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> found a reduction of microbial biomass at a higher glyphosate concentration and a temporary inhibitory effect at recommended field doses&#46; Furthermore&#44; effects of glyphosate on soil microbial communities and its mineralization in soils after various applications of this herbicide have been found<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a>&#46; A recent study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> also demonstrated behavioral differences between glyphosate and its major metabolite&#44; AMPA&#44; related to the physical properties of saturated hydraulic conductivity &#40;Ks&#41; and soil moisture&#46; Other authors found that glyphosate affects arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi due to a reduction in spore viability&#44; root colonization and arbuscule percentage<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a>&#46; However&#44; DSEs are more tolerant to different types of stress than other soil fungi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a>&#46; This could be due to the fact that the chemical compounds act effectively on the mycelium&#44; while spores and chlamydospores are more resistant to these compounds due to their low activity given their water content and the presence of a large amount of unsaturated fatty acids<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There is much less research on the effect of carbendazim on fungi&#46; However&#44; this fungicide has detrimental effects to fungal and bacterial biocontrol agents such as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trichoderma harzianum</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Trichoderma virens</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bacillus subtilis</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Pseudomonas fluorescens</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a>&#46; In this research&#44; we found that DSE strains have the potential to tolerate high concentrations &#40;181&#46;25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm&#44; 10 AD&#41; of fungicide&#59; these results are in accordance with those of others authors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a>&#46; One study showed that the type of fungicide applied to the soil must be seriously considered as the authors detected negative effects on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Rhizophagus fasciculatus</span> &#40;arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi&#41; with benomyl &#40;systemic benzimidazole&#41;&#59; however&#44; they found no effects when captan &#40;non-systemic fungicide&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> was applied&#46; Nevertheless&#44; our results showed high tolerance of DSE fungi against carbendazim&#44; which is a derivative of benomyl&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bipolaris tetramera</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> have potential to tolerate and degrade 100<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm of carbendazim <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a>&#46; In accordance with that article&#44; we found negative inhibition values in agronomic doses&#44; 2 AD and no differences compared with control&#46; These results would indicate an <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria</span> sp&#46; promotion growth when grown with the addition of carbendazim&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the case of cypermethrin&#44; there are studies that demonstrate that this insecticide caused a negative effect on soil enzymatic activities and microbial diversity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a>&#46; Our DSE strains showed low cypermethrin tolerance&#44; high inhibition percentage and low EC50&#46; Nevertheless&#44; a study revealed that when the pesticide is applied on pepper plants there is an increase in bacterial abundance and a change in the composition of the community of the Firmicutes phylum to Bacteroidetes and &#947;-Proteobacteria phyla<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a>&#46; Other authors showed the potential of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Aspergillus niger</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Aspergillus terreus</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Monilochaetes</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Fusarium</span> strains in the biodegradation of 50&#8211;150<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ppm of this pyrethroid<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a>&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This research has shown that agrochemicals commonly used in agriculture have detrimental effects on the growth of DSE fungi&#44; even when these agrochemicals are used at recommended doses&#59; however&#44; these negative effects vary according to the agrochemical considered&#46; Moreover&#44; this paper makes evident that DSE response to this type of toxin depends on the studied species of DSE fungus&#46; This research is a contribution to a better understanding of the behavior of DSE against xenobiotics&#44; evaluating the tolerance and&#47;or their use as a source of nutrients&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusion</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The DSE <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> tolerates all three agrochemicals at the tested doses while <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; is glyphosate and carbendazim-tolerant in all three doses but shows no tolerance to cypermethrin when the agronomic dose is twofold&#46; In general&#44; there is a decrease in the growth of the strains when increasing the dose of the agrochemicals studied&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Dark septate endophytes &#40;DSE&#41; are a heterogeneous group of fungi&#44; mostly belonging to the Phylum Ascomycota&#44; that are involved in a mutualistic symbiosis with plant roots&#46; The aim of this study is to evaluate the behavior of two strains of DSE isolated from wheat roots of two cropping areas in the province of Buenos Aires&#44; Argentina&#44; against some agrochemicals&#46; Of all the isolates obtained&#44; two strains were identified as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria alternata</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; These DSE were found to be tolerant to glyphosate&#44; carbendazim and cypermethrin when evaluated at the recommended agronomic dose &#40;AD&#41;&#44; 2 AD and&#44; in some cases&#44; 10 AD&#46; This work contributes to the study of the biology of this group of fungi and their tolerance in the presence of xenobiotics widely used in agriculture&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los end&#243;fitos septados oscuros &#40;DSE&#41; son un grupo heterog&#233;neo de hongos que participan de una simbiosis mutualista con ra&#237;ces de plantas&#44; perteneciendo principalmente al <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phylum</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ascomycota</span>&#46; El objetivo de este estudio fue aislar DSE de ra&#237;ces de trigo proveniente de dos &#225;reas de cultivo de la provincia de Buenos Aires y evaluar el comportamiento de dos cepas de DSE aisladas de ra&#237;ces de trigo frente a algunos agroqu&#237;micos en dos &#225;reas de cultivo de la provincia de Buenos Aires&#46; De todos los aislamientos obtenidos se seleccionaron dos cepas que se identificaron como <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria alternata</span> y <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; Se encontr&#243; que estos DSE son tolerantes al glifosato&#44; el carbendazim y la cipermetrina&#44; evaluados a las dosis agron&#243;micas recomendadas &#40;AD&#41;&#44; a 2x AD y&#44; en algunos casos&#44; a 10x AD&#46; Este trabajo contribuye al conocimiento de la biolog&#237;a de este grupo de hongos y su tolerancia a xenobi&#243;ticos ampliamente utilizados en la agricultura&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
    ]
    "multimedia" => array:4 [
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        "etiqueta" => "Figure 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "figura" => array:1 [
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Morphology of DSE&#39;s colony grown in MEA plate&#46; &#40;A&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria alternata</span>&#46; &#40;B&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;</p>"
        ]
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      1 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "fig0010"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 2"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg"
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Effective concentration &#40;EC 50&#41;&#44; the concentrations of the herbicide&#44; fungicide and insecticide that caused a 50&#37; reduction in fungal growth compared to the control&#46; Means<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>SD &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#41;&#46; Different letters differ significantly &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;&#46;</p>"
        ]
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        "etiqueta" => "Table 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "detalles" => array:1 [
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        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">4 levels of agrochemicals&#58; 0&#59; AD &#40;agronomic dose&#41;&#59; 2 AD&#59; 10 AD&#46; Means<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>SD &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#41;&#46; Different letters differ significantly &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;&#46;</p>"
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
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                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Agrochemicals&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col">Treatments&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">DSE strains</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria alternata</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " rowspan="4" align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Glyphosate</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;53<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;06 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;58<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01 e&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;42<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;02 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;22<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01 f&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;37<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;03 d&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">10 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;05<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;03<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " rowspan="4" align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Carbendazim</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;53<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;06 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;58<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;42<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;51<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;46<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;46<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;02 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">10 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;21<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05 f&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;33<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;02 d&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " rowspan="4" align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Cypermethrin</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Control&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;53<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;06 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;58<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;19<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;04 f&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;54<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;02 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;20<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 f&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">10 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;03<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
              "imagenFichero" => array:1 [
                0 => "xTab2257471.png"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Growth rate of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolu</span>s sp&#46; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Alternaria</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">alternata</span> &#40;DSE strains&#41;&#46; Comparison between DSE strains <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46; alternata</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46; and agrochemical type</p>"
        ]
      ]
      3 => array:8 [
        "identificador" => "tbl0010"
        "etiqueta" => "Table 2"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "detalles" => array:1 [
          0 => array:3 [
            "identificador" => "at2"
            "detalle" => "Table "
            "rol" => "short"
          ]
        ]
        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Each value represents the mean value<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>SD &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#41;&#46; Different letters differ significantly &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;&#46;</p>"
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:3 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td-with-role" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col">&#40;A&#41; Strains&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">2 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">10 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">36&#46;70<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;14 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">41&#46;53<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;91 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">78&#46;68<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;25 d&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">12&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">44&#46;28<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;90 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">50&#46;56<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;23 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">84&#46;29<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;25 d&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " rowspan="2" align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">A&#46;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">alternata</span></td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">35&#46;86<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;25 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">46&#46;89<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;98 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">78&#46;96<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;30 d&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">12&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">24&#46;95<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;68 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">36&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;14 c&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">81&#46;87<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;95 d&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
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                0 => "xTab2257470.png"
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">2 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">10 AD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cochliobolus</span> sp&#46;</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">6&#46;37<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;42 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">10&#46;76<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;59 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;00 b&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">&#8722;4&#46;31<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;05 a&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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Article information

ISSN: 03257541
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.ram.2019.02.003

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2024 November	3	1	4
2024 October	78	6	84
2024 September	67	23	90
2024 August	61	8	69
2024 July	52	5	57
2024 June	64	7	71
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2024 April	46	11	57
2024 March	78	13	91
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2023 October	56	9	65
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2023 June	47	7	54
2023 May	70	8	78
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2022 December	33	13	46
2022 November	61	11	72
2022 October	26	9	35
2022 September	30	16	46
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2020 April	47	27	74
2020 March	52	22	74
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2019 December	50	14	64
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