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Case Report
Psychosis induced by abuse of ayahuasca: a case report
Psicosis inducida por el abuso de la ayahuasca: un caso clínico
Raul Felipe Palma-Álvareza,b,c, Lara Grau-Lópeza,b,c,d, Elena Ros-Cucurulla,b,c,d, Alfonso Carlos Abada,b, Julia Dualdee, María Robles-Martínezf, Carlos Roncerog,
Corresponding author
croncero@saludcastillayleon.es

Corresponding author.
a Addiction and Dual Diagnosis Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Universitari Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
b Group of Psychiatry, Mental Health and Addictions, Vall d’Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
c Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
d Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain
e Psychiatry Department, Hospital San Rafael-Germanes Hospitalàries, Barcelona, Spain
f Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
g Psychiatric Service, University of Salamanca Health Care Complex; Psychiatric Department, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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inactivating MAO-A in the liver and intestines&#44; enabling DMT through this route to act on the central nervous system &#40;CNS&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;3</span></a> While <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">oral</span> use of DMT requires &#946;-carbolines &#40;or other MAO-A inhibitors&#41; to be functional&#44; both the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">smoked</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">injected</span> use of DMT have significant psychotropic activity without any other substance&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Ayahuasca produces bioelectrical&#44; neurochemical and metabolic changes in the CNS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;6&#8211;8</span></a> Serotonergic system is one the main targets of ayahuasca&#44; it has been also described interactions with Dopamine&#44; Glutamate&#44; and Noradrenalin receptors&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;8</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The original use of ayahuasca was as a ritualistic beverage by cultures of the Amazon basin&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2&#44;5</span></a> In a close relationship with its origin&#44; it has been reported that relatively new syncretic churches in South America use ayahuasca in sacramental rituals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;5</span></a> Besides&#44; recreational and therapeutic use in developed societies is rapidly increasing&#44; and it is currently possible to acquire through the Internet dried samples of the plants and organized ayahuasca trips&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Therapeutic uses of ayahuasca have been studied in several syndromes&#47;disorders such as anxiety&#44; depression and substance use disorders &#40;SUD&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;7&#44;8</span></a> There are different models that attempt to explain how ayahuasca&#39;s therapeutic properties could work in SUD&#44; namely the biochemical&#44; psychological&#44; physiological and transcendental theories&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ayahuasca causes several psychopathologic effects such as&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Phosphenes</span> and &#8220;eyes-closed&#8221; colored imageries&#44; reveries&#44; auditory hallucinations&#44; dissociative states&#44; altered thought processes&#44; intensification of emotions&#44; and anxiety&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;4</span></a> The initial effects begin at around a half hour after oral intake and the total duration is roughly 360<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>minutes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Several adverse reactions and side effects are described&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;6&#44;9</span></a> being psychosis one of the main psychological side-effects reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;9</span></a> Cases of psychosis in which ayahuasca could be involved have been previously documented&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Psychosis susceptibility and familial background of mental disorders have been proposed as risk factors for developing a ayahuasca-induced psychotic episodes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Nevertheless&#44; some authors propose that ayahuasca is safe when is taken in a supervised and controlled settings&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> highlighting a reported low incidence of ayahuasca-induced psychosis compared to the total overall users of ayahuasca&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;9</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We aim to report a patient who previously underwent targeted therapy with ayahuasca for SUD and depression&#44; but subsequently developed an abusive and uncontrolled use of ayahuasca with a self-medicating intention for his depressive symptoms&#44; finally suffering a psychotic episode&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Case report</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A 41-year-old male reported ayahuasca consumption in a ritualistic setting with aims to treat cocaine addiction when he was 25 years old&#46; Since then&#44; he reported sporadic use of ayahuasca orally in different contexts and even though generally through &#8220;controlled therapeutic rituals&#8221;&#46; Between ages of 27 and 30&#44; he used ayahuasca at home&#44; in rituals organized by himself obtaining it on the Internet attempting to palliate chronic depressive symptoms&#46; During these &#8220;rituals&#8221; he experienced moderate affective symptoms&#44; psychotic phenomena and behavioral changes &#40;e&#46;g&#46; sensation of losing the limits of his body&#44; fragmentation of body parts&#44; fear of losing control&#44; auditory hallucinations&#44; and high anxiety&#41;&#44; although these symptoms disappeared after each consumption&#46; He also reported experiencing psychotic-like symptoms during cocaine intoxications in the past&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The patient had stopped ayahuasca use when he was 30 up until the month preceding the current episode&#46; He reinitiated ayahuasca use&#44; once a week for a month in his home without supervision&#44; in order to alleviate emotional distress following a relationship&#46; The last time he consumed was 10 days prior to his admission into the emergency room&#44; experiencing thenceforth episodes of restlessness&#44; unspecified fears&#44; delusions of reference&#44; severe mood fluctuations &#40;ranging from uncontrollable crying&#47;sadness to irritability&#41;&#44; sensory-perceptive distortions&#44; somaesthetic hallucinations and simple auditory hallucinations&#46; No significant alterations were found in his blood panel&#44; EKG or CT scan&#46; Urine drug test was negative for cannabis&#44; cocaine&#44; opiates&#44; methadone&#44; methamphetamine and alcohol&#46; After a Mental State Examination&#44; he was admitted into a psychiatric inpatient unit&#46; While inhospital&#44; over the course of a single day frequent oscillations were observed between social isolation and hyper-familiarity&#44; as well as between severe anxiety episodes and subjective &#8220;peaceful&#8221; states&#46; Besides&#44; his discourse mainly focused on a strong conviction of &#8220;spiritual healing&#8221; through ayahuasca use&#44; accompanied by mystical thinking&#44; exacerbated by kinaesthetic perceptions that the patient associated with what he defined as &#8220;astral projections&#8221; and &#8220;personal regeneration&#8221; as a consequence of his last ayahuasca consumption&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Antipsychotic medication was prescribed to treat his symptoms&#44; with an increasing dosage of olanzapine PO up to 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg daily&#46; Sensory-perceptive distortions and delusional thought decreased&#44; but excessive sedation with Olanzapine led to its substitution with Paliperidone&#44; which was scaled up to 9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg daily&#46; To achieve a better adherence&#44; paliperidone palmitate was proposed and accepted&#46; Upon remission of the acute symptoms&#44; the patient was finally discharged with follow-up care in a SUD outpatient unit&#46; The medication prescribed at the discharge was palmitate Paliperidone 100<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;monthtly and quetiapine 200<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;night&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Discussion</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ayahuasca-induced psychosis could be related to serotonin and dopamine system interactions&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;8&#44;9</span></a> and have been described as unusual when ayahuasca is used in controlled settings&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> However&#44; this case is a sample of an emerging and ongoing tendency in developed societies regarding use ayahuasca as an alternative therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a> The patient originally started treatment through organized sessions with a therapist&#44; after which he moved on to an abusive self-led consumption with ayahuasca obtained via online providers&#44; justifying the use of the substance as a self-medicating endeavor for his depressive symptoms&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> It is remarkable how his experience was not limited to psychotic-like symptoms similar to the psychological effects usually described with ayahuasca use&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;4</span></a> but escalated to an experience of delusions and paranoid interpretations which persisted well after the effects of the substance wore off&#46; One systematic review on ayuahuasca-associated psychosis described that its incidence is low&#44; and in relation to the current case&#44; several personal and familiar history factors are involved &#40;such as concomitant use of other drugs&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Interestingly&#44; some authors argue that people who have previous good experiences with ayahuasca continue its use&#44; and&#44; conversely&#44; subjects with bad experiences stop using it in early stages&#59; in this case&#44; the patient used the substance even after having experienced previous undesirable effects&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">No specific treatment currently exists for acute ayahuasca intoxication&#44; apart from symptom specific supportive therapy with benzodiazepines for acute distress and agitation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;10</span></a> Antipsychotic medication has been used in ayahuasca-associated psychosis with good response rates in case reports&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The possibility of developing ayahuasca dependence &#40;as well as to other hallucinogens&#41; is a debatable issue&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> although this case shines a light on the risks of severe ayahuasca abuse in certain individuals and its repercussions&#46; With untested and unregulated &#8220;treatments&#8221; currently existing&#44; and an evident lack of research based on evidence&#44; further enquiry is needed on the potential use of ayahuasca as a therapeutic tool&#46; This should take into account&#44; amongst others&#44; factors like dosage&#44; risk-benefit assessment&#44; and contraindications based on medical history &#40;our patient&#44; as an illustrating example&#44; had previously experienced psychotic symptoms with cocaine&#41;&#46; This case highlights the potential risk for psychosis of ayahuasca use&#44; and although psychotic episodes have been described as infrequent&#44; these symptoms generate important repercussions and therefore should always be taken into account&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Funding</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public&#44; commercial&#44; or not-for-profit sectors&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Raul Felipe Palma-&#193;lvarez received compensation to give talks for Exeltis&#44; Lundbeck&#44; MSD and Mundipharma&#46; No other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity that has a financial interest in or is in financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lara Grau-L&#243;pez received compensation to give talks for Janssen-Cilag&#44; Otsuka&#44; and Pfizer&#46; She has no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity that has a financial interest in or a financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Elena Ros-Cucurull received compensation to give talks for Janssen-Cilag&#44; Lundbeck&#44; Otsuka&#44; Servier&#44; and Rovi&#46; She received financial compensation for projects with Esteve and Pfizer&#46; She has no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity that has a financial interest in or a financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Alfonso Carlos Abad declares no conflict of interest&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Julia Dualde declares no conflict of interest&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mar&#237;a Robles-Mart&#237;nez declares no conflict of interest&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Carlos Roncero received compensation to give talks for Janssen-Cilag&#44; Bristol-Myers Squibb&#44; Ferrer-Brainpharma&#44; Pfizer&#44; Reckitt-Benckiser&#44; Lundbeck&#44; Otsuka&#44; Servier&#44; Lilly&#44; Shire&#44; GSK&#44; Rovi&#44; and Adamed&#46; He received financial compensation for his participation as a member of the Janssen-Cilag&#44; Lilly&#44; and Shire boards&#46; He carried out the PROTEUS project&#44; which was funded by a grant from Reckitt-Benckiser and Indivior&#46; The author has no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity that has a financial interest in or is in financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed&#46;</p></span></span>"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2019-06-25"
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            1 => "Depression"
            2 => "DMT"
            3 => "Addiction"
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            0 => "Ayahuasca"
            1 => "Depresi&#243;n"
            2 => "DMT"
            3 => "Adicci&#243;n"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Ayahuasca is a psychotropic infusion prepared by boiling the bark of Amazonian plants and has many psychopharmacological effects not fully understood&#46; Some of those effects are used as treatment for different diseases&#46; However&#44; the side effects of ayahuasca&#44; including ayahuasca-induced psychosis&#44; are an important issue&#46; Here we report the case of a patient who had a psychotic episode after taking ayahuasca and who was successfully treated with antipsychotic medication&#46; Given the current spread of ayahuasca consumption in developed societies&#44; the present case highlights the need for better understanding and regulation of the social-legal condition of ayahuasca and the need for further research&#46; Additionally&#44; psycho-education seems advisable in order to create awareness of the potential risks of the use of ayahuasca&#46;</p></span>"
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La ayahuasca es una bebida psicotr&#243;pica preparada a trav&#233;s de la cocci&#243;n de plantas de la cuenca amaz&#243;nica que tiene muchos efectos psicofarmacol&#243;gicos no del todo estudiados&#46; Algunos de esos efectos son usados como tratamiento de diversas patolog&#237;as&#46; Sin embargo&#44; existen efectos secundarios de la ayahuasca que deben ser tenidos en cuenta&#44; entre ellos psicosis inducida por ayahuasca&#46; Reportamos un caso de un paciente que&#44; tras autoadministraci&#243;n de ayahuasca&#44; present&#243; un episodio psic&#243;tico y que fue satisfactoriamente tratado con antipsic&#243;ticos&#46; Dada el uso cada vez m&#225;s frecuente de ayahuasca en las sociedades desarrolladas&#44; el caso actual resalta las necesidades de entender&#44; regular e investigar el uso de la ayahuasca&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; crear conciencia de los potenciales riesgos del uso de ayahuasca a trav&#233;s de la psicoeducaci&#243;n deber&#237;a ser implementado&#46;</p></span>"
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    ]
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      "titulo" => "References"
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Clinical investigations of the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca&#58; Rationale and regulatory challenges"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "D&#46;J&#46; McKenna"
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                            "web" => "Medline"
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                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
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                        0 => array:2 [
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                            1 => "J&#46; Riba"
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                    ]
                  ]
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1007/7854_2016_472"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
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            2 => array:3 [
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                      "titulo" => "The hallucinogenic world of tryptamines&#58; an updated review"
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                  "host" => array:1 [
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                      "titulo" => "Ritualistic Use of Ayahuasca versus Street Use of Similar Substances Seized by the Police&#58; A Key Factor Involved in the Potential for Intoxications and Overdose&#63;"
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                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "R&#46; Lanaro"
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            5 => array:3 [
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                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
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Article information
ISSN: 00347450
Original language: English
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