array:24 [ "pii" => "S2253808913001225" "issn" => "22538089" "doi" => "10.1016/j.remnie.2013.09.005" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2013-11-01" "aid" => "523" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L. and SEMNIM" "copyrightAnyo" => "2013" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Esp Med Nucl Imagen Mol. 2013;32:378-86" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 2934 "formatos" => array:2 [ "HTML" => 2538 "PDF" => 396 ] ] "Traduccion" => array:1 [ "es" => array:19 [ "pii" => "S2253654X13001212" "issn" => "2253654X" "doi" => "10.1016/j.remn.2013.07.003" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2013-11-01" "aid" => "523" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L. and SEMNIM" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Esp Med Nucl Imagen Mol. 2013;32:378-86" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 5069 "formatos" => array:3 [ "EPUB" => 13 "HTML" => 3189 "PDF" => 1867 ] ] "es" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Formación continuada</span>" "titulo" => "Actualización del uso de radiotrazadores PET en patología inflamatoria" "tienePdf" => "es" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "es" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "es" 1 => "en" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "378" "paginaFinal" => "386" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "en" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Update on the use of PET radiopharmaceuticals in inflammatory disease" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "es" => true "en" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figura 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 710 "Ancho" => 1400 "Tamanyo" => 126489 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "es" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Mujer de 50 años con brote agudo de artritis reumatoide. La <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/TC (A: imagen de proyección de máxima intensidad, B: cortes coronales y axiales de hombros, C: cortes coronales y axiales de caderas) mostró captación intensa articular y en regiones periarticulares de forma bilateral en hombros y caderas.</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "I. Martínez-Rodríguez, J.M. Carril" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "I." "apellidos" => "Martínez-Rodríguez" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "J.M." "apellidos" => "Carril" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "Traduccion" => array:1 [ "en" => array:9 [ "pii" => "S2253808913001225" "doi" => "10.1016/j.remnie.2013.09.005" "estado" => "S300" "subdocumento" => "" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2253808913001225?idApp=UINPBA00004N" ] ] "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2253654X13001212?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/2253654X/0000003200000006/v1_201311070034/S2253654X13001212/v1_201311070034/es/main.assets" ] ] "itemSiguiente" => array:19 [ "pii" => "S2253808913001183" "issn" => "22538089" "doi" => "10.1016/j.remnie.2013.09.001" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2013-11-01" "aid" => "102" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L. and SEMNIM" "documento" => "simple-article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "crp" "cita" => "Rev Esp Med Nucl Imagen Mol. 2013;32:387-9" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 817 "formatos" => array:2 [ "HTML" => 608 "PDF" => 209 ] ] "en" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Clinical note</span>" "titulo" => "Utility of positron emission tomography with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in a case of juvenile recurrent respiratory papillomatosis" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "387" "paginaFinal" => "389" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Utilidad de la tomografía por emisión de positrones con <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG en un caso de papilomatosis pulmonar recurrente juvenil" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 454 "Ancho" => 1301 "Tamanyo" => 87166 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">PET/CT studies demonstrating the evolution of the lesions of the inferior lobes of both lungs from the basal study (A) to the post-surgical control performed 4 months later (B).</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "I. Navales, P. Paredes, M. Cols, A. Perissinotti, M. Vancells, F. Pons" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "I." "apellidos" => "Navales" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "P." "apellidos" => "Paredes" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M." "apellidos" => "Cols" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "A." "apellidos" => "Perissinotti" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M." "apellidos" => "Vancells" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "F." "apellidos" => "Pons" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "Traduccion" => array:1 [ "es" => array:9 [ "pii" => "S2253654X13000048" "doi" => "10.1016/j.remn.2012.12.005" "estado" => "S300" "subdocumento" => "" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2253654X13000048?idApp=UINPBA00004N" ] ] "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2253808913001183?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/22538089/0000003200000006/v1_201311020040/S2253808913001183/v1_201311020040/en/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:18 [ "pii" => "S2253808913001304" "issn" => "22538089" "doi" => "10.1016/j.remnie.2013.09.013" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2013-11-01" "aid" => "522" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L. and SEMNIM" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Esp Med Nucl Imagen Mol. 2013;32:371-7" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:2 [ "total" => 758 "formatos" => array:2 [ "HTML" => 532 "PDF" => 226 ] ] "en" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Original article</span>" "titulo" => "Dynamic behaviour of selected PET tracers in embryonated chicken eggs" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "371" "paginaFinal" => "377" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Comportamiento dinámico de marcadores PET seleccionados en huevos de gallina embrionados" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 511 "Ancho" => 1123 "Tamanyo" => 45317 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Structure of the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-sulphonamide (<span class="elsevierStyleBold">1</span>).</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "P. Gebhardt, L. Würbach, A. Heidrich, L. Heinrich, M. Walther, T. Opfermann, B. Sørensen, H.P. Saluz" "autores" => array:8 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "P." "apellidos" => "Gebhardt" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "L." "apellidos" => "Würbach" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "A." "apellidos" => "Heidrich" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "L." "apellidos" => "Heinrich" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M." "apellidos" => "Walther" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "T." "apellidos" => "Opfermann" ] 6 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "B." "apellidos" => "Sørensen" ] 7 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "H.P." "apellidos" => "Saluz" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2253808913001304?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/22538089/0000003200000006/v1_201311020040/S2253808913001304/v1_201311020040/en/main.assets" ] "en" => array:20 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Continuing education</span>" "titulo" => "Update on the use of PET radiopharmaceuticals in inflammatory disease" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "378" "paginaFinal" => "386" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "I. Martínez-Rodríguez, J.M. Carril" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "I." "apellidos" => "Martínez-Rodríguez" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "mimartinez@humv.es" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">¿</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "J.M." "apellidos" => "Carril" ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Servicio de Medicina Nuclear, Hospital Universitario «Marqués de Valdecilla», Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Actualización del uso de radiotrazadores PET en patología inflamatoria" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 872 "Ancho" => 1400 "Tamanyo" => 175950 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A 39-year-old male with an acute episode of Crohn's disease. In the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT (A: maximum intensity projection image, B: coronal slices and C: axial slices) an increased <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake was observed in the wall of the ascending colon (demonstrating areas of dilatation and thickening and other zones of stenosis), transverse colon and a large part of the descending colon, the distal portion of which also presented dilatation. The involvement demonstrated by PET/CT was more extense than that determined by endoscopy.</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In inflammation complex physiopathological defensive processes are produced in response to injury. This involves multiple factors including both cellular (macrophages, granulocytes, fibroblasts, platelets, and lymphocytes) and chemical mediators (cytokines, complement system, histamines, fibrinogen, and plasmin) and adhesion molecules which are associated with vasodilatation and an increase in vascular permeability which produces extravasation of proteins and cells in the area affected.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The phases involved in the inflammatory process are the activation of the endothelium, migration of the leucocytes (which are recruited by the adhesion molecules of the endothelium) and resolution. Early diagnosis and localization are frequently essential for adequate therapeutic management of the patients.</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Limitations of structural imaging techniques</span><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Structural techniques provide excellent anatomical resolution, although presenting inconveniences and limitations inherent to them. Ultrasonography is operator-dependent, has difficulties for evaluating deep structures and has bad penetration in gas as well as in the intestine and in dense structures such as bone. The main disadvantage of computed tomography (CT) is the impossibility to use intravenous contrast in allergic patients or in those with renal function impairment. The limitations of magnetic resonance (MR) are derived from the presence of pacemakers and implants, a lower availability and higher cost, the long duration of the studies which produces artifacts by movement, frequent intolerance to the test and adverse reactions to gadolinium. However, their most important limitations are the lack of functional information (except in functional MR) and that they do not detect inflammation in the initial stages since only late anatomical changes are observed.</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Conventional techniques in nuclear medicine</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These techniques are easy and inexpensive, have been used for decades in inflammatory disease and have significantly contributed to the clinical and therapeutic management of patients. The principal indications are the detection and localization of inflammatory foci, the follow-up and evaluation of response to treatment and their great differential contribution to structural techniques in showing early functional changes.</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A great variety of radiotracers have been used for the study of inflammatory disease. However, only a few are of generalized use in daily clinical practice. Among these are the phosphonates labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc for 3-phase bone scintigraphy, leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc or <span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span>In, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga-citrate and nanocolloids labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc. The accumulation of these radiotracers in inflamed tissue is based on different mechanisms, but none of which are specific.</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The angioscintigraphic and vascular phases of scintigraphy with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc-phosphonates provide an image of hypervascularization and increased vascular permeability which is always associated with inflammatory reactions. The delayed phase provides specific images of the tracer molecule and reflects the activity of the osteoblasts as an active response of the bone to inflammation. The mechanism of the uptake of leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc or <span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span>In is its active migration to the sites of inflammation. The main disadvantages are related to the time-consumption of cellular labeling and the manipulation of the blood. In addition, it is not sensitive for the detection of diseases such as sarcoidosis in which the predominant cellular response is not neutrophilic. The numerous mechanisms involved in the uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga include the increase in blood flow and vascular permeability, the binding to transferrin and lactoferrin and the siderophores produced by the bacteria and the direct uptake by leucocytes and bacteria. The main inconveniences are, from a biological point of view, the inherent lack of specificity, and from a physical point of view, the long period of semidisintegration, the high energy of the gamma radiation and the delay in diagnosis due to the need for late images. Other radiotracers such as the nanocolloids, IgG, albumin, antigranulocyte antibodies, interleukins or ciprofloxacin labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span>In, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc or <span class="elsevierStyleSup">123</span>I have been incorporated in an attempt to improve the specificity, although their use has not become generalized.</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The evolution of the conventional scintigraphic techniques has followed the technological progress both in instrumentation (from planar images to SPECT technique and posterior to co-registry with CT and the hybrid SPECT/CT equipment, which provide greater resolution and more precise anatomical localization) and in the software of image processing, reconstruction algorithms and quantification programs.</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">From conventional scintigraphy to the PET technique</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similar to the case of conventional scintigraphy, advances in positron emission tomography (PET) have been produced in both the instrumentation and in the radiotracers. The instrumentation has evolved from the first PET equipment to co-registry and PET/CT up to the most modern PET/CT 4D with correction of respiratory and cardiac movements and PET/MR which provides greater definition of the soft tissue. Likewise, new software programs for image reconstruction and quantification have also been developed.</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although several PET radiotracers have been tested in inflammatory disease, including those initially developed for oncology and others specifically designed for inflammation and infection (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>), <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-fluordeoxyglucose (<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG) is the most commonly used. The tumor cells show increased <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake due to an elevated rate of glycolysis and overexpression of the number of glucose membrane transporters. However, this uptake is not tumor specific since it is present in inflammatory and infectious processes, being the main cause of false positive results in oncology, which, in turn, allows its use in these pathologies. Its accumulation in inflammatory tissue is also related to an increase in glucose metabolism in a process which is probably more complicated than in tumor cells. Numerous cytokines and growth factors act on the inflammatory cells (mainly macrophages and leucocytes) and transform them into activated cells. This process results in an increase in the expression and the affinity of the glucose transporters (mainly GLUT-1 and GLUT-3) and greater production of glycolytic enzymes such as hexokinase. It also results in an increase in the uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2–4</span></a> which is dependent on the grade of cellular activation and is greater in the neutrophils and macrophages. Thus, the processes in which these cells predominate will most probably be visualized with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similar to the conventional scintigraphic techniques, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT provides functional and molecular information of the inflammatory process and also has advantages such as excellent spatial resolution, high lesion/background contrast, the use of a relatively low dose of radiation and the diagnosis may be more rapidly achieved than with other radiotracers such as <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga.</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Contribution of molecular imaging with PET to different inflammatory diseases</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the last decade there has been a notable increase in studies aimed at assessing different applications of PET radiotracers, mainly <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in numerous inflammatory diseases (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>). As a consequence of this interest, the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM) and the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (SNMMI) have very recently published a joint guideline for the use of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in inflammation and infection.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this review we will focus on the most relevant diseases such as in large vessel vasculitis, sarcoidosis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and the study of atheroma plaque.</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Large vessel vasculitis</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This is an inflammatory process which affects large vessels and is characterized by the accumulation of leucocytes in the vascular walls and their damage. Early diagnosis is fundamental to establish adequate therapeutic management and, frequently, relatively rapid treatment must be started. However, early diagnosis and assessment of the real extension of the disease may be difficult since unspecific symptoms and analytic parameters are frequently present (being the cause of fever of unknown origin in 17% of elderly patients<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a>). In addition, biopsy of the temporal artery is often negative (in more than 45% of the patients<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a>), since the involvement may be segmentary or exclusively extracranial and the sample obtained is not always sufficient.</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main limitation of structural imaging techniques (angiography, echo-doppler, CT and MR) is their low sensitivity to detect subtle alterations of the vessels early since they only show late anatomical changes and indirect signs of inflammation (wall thickening, stenosis, thrombosis and calcifications) making it difficult to differentiate between active and residual inflammatory lesions. Likewise, ultrasonography does not allow the evaluation of deep large vessels.</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Conventional scintigraphic techniques (scintigraphy with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga and with labeled leucocytes) have been used on scarce occasions with limited results. In the last years there has produced an increase in publications on the use of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET and PET/CT in giant cell arteritis (GCA) and Takayasu disease (TD). The main advantage is that they provide direct images of the early metabolic changes produced by the activation of the inflammatory cells (mainly the leucocytes) which infiltrate the vascular walls. Their potential applications are diagnosis, assessment of the degree of metabolic activity and extension, treatment monitoring and the early diagnosis of relapse.</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The reported sensitivity of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in the early detection of active arterial inflammation is from 60 to 92% with a specificity of 88–100%, according to the series.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8–10</span></a> However, it is currently not considered as a routine diagnostic tool in GCA, being especially indicated in atypical presentations with unspecific signs and symptoms (weight loss, general malaise, fever of unknown origin in older patients), in young patients or in clinical and biochemical suspicion and a negative temporal biopsy. Its main limitation is that the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake is not specific for vasculitis. Moreover, it does not allow the evaluation of temporal arteries because of its spatial resolution and physiologic uptake by the brain and soft tissue. Greater sensitivity has been described in patients with an elevation of the acute phase reactants, especially C-reactive protein (95.5% vs. 60% of global sensitivity).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG provides good results for the assessment of the degree of disease extension (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>). It allows all the large-sized arteries to be studied in a single scan, showing more affected regions than with MR and providing more precise evaluation of aortic involvement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Aortitis is a particular entity which occurs in 15% of the patients and early treatment is important due to the risk of aneurysm and dissection. However, its diagnosis is difficult due to the unspecific or absent clinical manifestations, to the negative temporal biopsy because frequently only the aorta is involved and to the delayed detection by the structural techniques. In one study carried out in GCA in the acute phase with confirmation by biopsy and positive <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG a correlation was observed between the increased uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in the thoracic and abdominal aorta and the diameter measured by CT. Thus, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG may have prognostic value for the posterior development of aortic dilatation and aneurysms.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">With regard to the evaluation of response to treatment and the use in the therapeutic management of the patients, although not conclusive, the results suggest its utility. A normalization of the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake has been reported after treatment in 80% of the regions affected and a correlation has been observed with clinical and analytical improvement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13,14</span></a> However, in another prospective study although an initial decrease of the uptake was observed at 3 months of treatment, this uptake persisted at 6 months, being attributed to remodeling and tissue repair phenomenon or to an immune resistance of the vascular wall.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> Fuchs et al. described a global sensitivity and specificity of 73.3% and 83.9%, respectively, which increased in patients without immunosuppression (99.6% and 86.1%, respectively) versus those with immunosuppressive treatment (sensitivity: 52.9%, specificity: 78.6%). The incorporation of PET with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG increased the clinical diagnostic efficacy from 54.1 to 70.5% and lead to a change in treatment in 26.7% of patients without immunosuppressants and in 22.6% of those with immunosuppressants.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Patients under steroid therapy at the time of the study presented lower uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG and, thus, it is recommended that, whenever possible, the study should be performed in an interval without immunosuppressive treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The studies published have not demonstrated that the initial intensity of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake and its evolution after treatment have a predictive value of relapse in patients with GCA.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a></p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Rheumatic polymyalgia is a clinical syndrome which is frequently associated with GCA and currently numerous authors consider both as a single entity, detecting uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in the large arteries in 30% of the patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> Thus, some patients apparently presenting isolated rheumatic polymyalgia in fact have an associated large vessel inflammation, even with a negative temporal biopsy and without signs or symptoms of GCA,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> with the consequent therapeutic and prognostic implications.</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Takayasu disease (TD) is the most common cause of vasculitis in adolescents and affects the aorta and its main branches. Early diagnosis is important to prevent irreversible structural changes, although it is difficult to establish since the initial clinical manifestations and the biochemical parameters are often unspecific and structural techniques (angiography and angio-MR) only show late anatomical changes (stenosis, occlusion and aneurysms). This leads to a delay of months and even years in the diagnosis, with the degree of extension also generally being underevaluated.</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The greater contribution of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG would be in the clinical forms with an atypical onset and with normal or discordant inflammatory analytical parameters, in which the technique provides a more exact assessment of the extension and an early detection of reactivation. In a study with 32 patients, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT showed a sensitivity of 79% and a specificity of 87%, with a significant correlation of the uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG with the clinical manifestations and the analytical data at baseline and during follow-up.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> In addition, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT has shown to be superior to angiography in detecting early inflammation and monitoring the effectiveness of treatment (sensitivity of 92% and a specificity of 100%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Finally, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET has shown similar results in comparison with MR in both the initial diagnosis and in the follow-up after immunosuppressive therapy, although it detected more involved regions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As a result of all of the above, some guidelines are beginning to consider the use of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET in the management of large vessel vasculitis within the investigation and clinical setting in specific situations such as in suspicion of the involvement of large vessels in GCA.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21,22</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There are still issues which are in debate such as the standardization of the protocol,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> the validation of image reading,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> the influence of different factors on the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake, the interval between the completion of the treatment and the scan and the meaning of the persistence of uptake after the acute phase.</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Other PET radiotracers are under evaluation in the study of vasculitis such as <span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>C-(R)-PK11195 which binds to the peripheral receptor of the benzodiazepines and is overexpressed in activated macrophages. Initial studies have shown the uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>C-(R)-PK11195 in the arterial wall in symptomatic patients and not in asymptomatic patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Sarcoidosis</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sarcoidosis is a multisystemic disease of unknown etiology and is characterized by the presence of noncaseifying granulomas representing a clinical challenge since its mode of presentation, clinical course and response to treatment vary greatly. Its intensity of activity and extension has important therapeutic implications. Structural techniques have limitations to differentiate foci of active inflammation, especially pulmonary, from fibrosis. Also, the changes found in the size of the lesions by structural techniques do not always reflect the changes in metabolic activity.</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Scintigraphy with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga is the nuclear medicine technique most widely used for the diagnosis of sarcoidosis, evaluation of the grade of pulmonary and extrapulmonary involvement and the management of the patients. The disadvantages are the high radiation exposure, the low quality of the images and the need for late acquisitions which delay the diagnosis. In addition, although certain patterns of uptake have been considered as very indicative of sarcoidosis, the sensitivity and specificity described by the different groups vary greatly and, at present, their value is limited.</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT has the advantage of high spatial resolution which allows the detection of smaller lesions such as pulmonary lesions, lower patient irradiation and a shorter time to obtain the diagnosis. However, at present it is not indicated in the initial diagnosis of the disease since the findings are indistinguishable from metastatic tumoral or lymphomatous involvement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> Nevertheless, it has been reported that a pattern of symmetric uptake in the hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes or extranodal involvement associated with erythema nodosum and uptake in the parotid glands is more probably due to sarcoidosis and not to a tumoral process.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The indications with greater scientific evidence are the evaluation of disease extension, the degree of inflammatory activity, the detection of the involvement of unsuspected sites (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>) and as a guide for the biopsy of metabolically more active and accessible lesions. <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG has shown greater sensitivity than <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga, especially in extrapulmonary (100% and 81%, respectively) as well as pulmonary involvement (90% and 48%, respectively).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> A recent study has confirmed this greater sensitivity of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG versus <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga (97% vs. 88%). <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG has demonstrated greater interobserver concordance and the detection of more extrapulmonary and mediastinal lesions and lymph nodes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> In another study in 137 patients <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET detected clinical and radiological unknown occult sites of involvement in 15% of the cases, being positive in two thirds of the patients with radiologic stages II and III.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG is also indicated for the monitoring of response to treatment. A decrease of pulmonary and extrapulmonary uptake has been observed after therapy with high dose corticoids in parallel with clinical and radiological improvement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28,30</span></a> One situation in which <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG may be of great value is in stage IV in which it is difficult to differentiate active pulmonary inflammation from fibrosis with structural imaging techniques. In one retrospective report including 188 studies <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG differentiated active reversible disease from irreversible fibrosis and also showed a decrease in pulmonary uptake in patients with active inflammation after treatment with corticoids.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> Milman et al. performed an interesting study using <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG as a tool to evaluate the efficacy of the treatment in the same patient according to the route of administration, with no differences being observed in pulmonary inflammatory activity measured by <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG after therapy with inhaled corticoids, although a reduction in pulmonary uptake was observed after oral administration.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a></p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a very recent study <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT showed discordant results with respect to high resolution thoracic CT in more than half of the studies (54.3%), demonstrating more extensive unsuspected pulmonary or extrapulmonary involvement in 14 out of 19 patients and less extension in 5. The information provided by <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG had a direct clinical impact on therapeutic management in 63% of the patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The presence of cardiac involvement by sarcoidosis is an important prognostic factor, with early diagnosis and treatment being fundamental to reduce the associated morbimortality. However, its incidence is probably underestimated due to scarce or absent symptomatology and to the lack of standardized criteria for diagnosis. Endomyocardial biopsy is difficult to achieve and is positive in less than 10% of the patients, and the findings of the echocardiogram and radionuclide studies of myocardial perfusion are not pathognomonic. This is the context in which the contribution of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT is promising. One important limitation is the previously mentioned physiological uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG by the myocardium which may vary greatly depending on numerous factors (diet, age, blood glucose levels, and obesity). Similar to coronary atheromatosis, attempts to solve this inconvenience include a low-carbohydrates and high-fat diet and a longer fasting period to reduce the cardiac uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG and to improve the sensitivity.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> However, this has not been confirmed by other authors.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> Although studies specifically aimed at the study of cardiac sarcoidosis with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG are scarce, they include a small number of patients and do not always have histologic confirmation, the initial results are promising, especially compared to <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga. Okumura et al. reported that <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET can detect active cardiac inflammation in an early phase before the development of advanced fibrosis with a greater sensitivity than that of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga (100% vs. 36%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> A lower sensitivity has been described in patients receiving treatment with steroids (75% vs.100%)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> and a lower specificity than that of MR.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35,36</span></a> A focal uptake or foci of uptake within a diffuse pattern would be more suggestive of active inflammation<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> and could be a predictor of good response to therapy with steroids in addition to being useful for monitoring. It has been reported that heterogeneous uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis may disappear as quickly as 1 month after treatment with corticoids.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> Further studies are needed in larger populations to confirm these results, to standardize the technique, to validate the method of image interpretation and to establish the most specific patterns of uptake.</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Other more tumor-specific PET radiotracers have been evaluated for the study of sarcoidosis with the aim of improving the differential diagnosis between malignant tumors and granulomas. Zhao et al. compared <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>C-methionine (MET) and <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-fluorothymidine (FLT) and found that although there were no differences for FDG and FLT, the uptake of MET was lower in the granulomatous lesions than in the tumors and would be useful for their differential diagnosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> Combined studies with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>FDG and <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-fluoromethyl-tyrosine (FMT) have also demonstrated that FMT allowed a better discrimination between sarcoidosis, which did not show FMT uptake, and malignant lesions, which evidenced FMT uptake.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Rheumatoid arthritis</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by a massive infiltration of activated macrophages, the proliferation of fibroblasts, hypertrophy of the synovial membrane, and neovascularization which cause chronic inflammation of the joints. Early diagnosis and treatment may help to slow down joint destruction although the early symptoms are not specific, and conventional radiologic studies are not able to assess synovial inflammation early. High resolution ultrasonography and MR with gadolinium and fat suppression allow visualization of the pannus, increase in vascularization, synovial thickening of the inflamed joint and bone erosions. Molecular imaging with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET provides direct information of the early metabolic changes which take place in the synovia, evaluating the grade of inflammation and also allowing the study of all the joints in the human body in a single study. The most characteristic finding is an increase in uptake in the joint space or in the thickened synovia which may extend to the tendinous sheaths (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>). In 1995 the first study on the use of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET in rheumatoid arthritis was published, demonstrating increased uptake in swollen joints in parallel with the synovial volume estimated with MR.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> In another study in which 366 joints of 21 patients with active rheumatoid arthritis were evaluated, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG was found to be useful to establish synovial metabolic activity, and a greater intensity of uptake was found to correspond with a greater clinical, analytical and ultrasonography severity, with PET being positive in 63% of the joints studied versus 56% by ultrasonography.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> Moreover, it has been observed that <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG shows more inflamed joints than those found by clinical manifestations and bone scintigraphy, with the detection of atlanto-axial joint involvement (which is frequently asymptomatic and is an early phase of subclinical synovitis prior to subluxation) in up to 28% of the patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One important aspect in which the utility of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG may be promising is in the monitoring of treatment for optimization and individualization, being of special relevance in the case of new biological treatments. In the initial studies a decrease of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake after treatment with prednisone and methotrexate was already observed.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> In more recent studies a correlation has been reported between the reduction in the intensity of articular uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG and the clinical activity after 2 weeks of treatment with infliximab (a new blocker of the tumor necrosis alpha factor)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> and after 2 and 4 weeks of combined oral therapy with methotrexate, sulfasalazine and hydroxychloroquine,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> and it may, thus, be an early predictor of the efficacy of the treatment and clinical evolution.</p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We want to emphasize the superiority of PET/CT over PET as it allows more precise anatomical localization of the foci of increased activity which is especially relevant in the evaluation of small joints such as the interphalangeal or metacarpophalangeal. In addition, the CT component provides anatomical information of bone involvement such as erosions.</p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However, there is still insufficient scientific evidence supporting the routine use of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT in these patients. Currently this technique is restricted to investigation, for the identification of affected joints and the quantification of the grade of inflammatory activity. Also, its contribution in the context of the imaging techniques available today (especially ultrasonography and MR) remains to be established, although it may play a role in the early diagnosis of synovitis in the initial stages.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> Its use in the follow-up and evaluation of the response to different therapies has the disadvantage of requiring successive studies with the consequent exposure to radiation.</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Inflammatory bowel disease</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Inflammatory bowel disease is a chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract with an unknown etiology related to immune phenomena. The signs and symptoms are often unspecific and common to other diseases, especially in children, thereby making the initial diagnosis erroneous or delayed. Diagnosis is achieved with the combination of radiologic studies (barium contrast radiography, upper endoscopy and colonoscopy with biopsy) and invasive tests which generate patient discomfort and, on occasions, only allow incomplete evaluation due to the impossibility to explore all the intestinal segments. In addition, the assessment of the real extension of the disease and the intensity of inflammatory activity is often difficult to establish with structural techniques.</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Scintigraphy with leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc or <span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span>In is the nuclear medicine test of choice and is of great utility in different clinical situations such as the evaluation of the grade of disease activity in cases with discordance between the clinical and analytical data, assessment of extension and the monitoring of response to treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> It has a high sensitivity and specificity (ranging from 84 to 95%), similar to those of ultrasonography and MR,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a> which increases with SPECT and SPECT/CT and has a high negative predictive value. As mentioned previously, the main inconveniences are related to the time-consumption of cellular labeling and the manipulation of blood.</p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT is a noninvasive method which has no inconveniences derived from cellular labeling and is an indicator of functional inflammatory activity and may, therefore, be superior to other techniques such as MR which detects the morphologic alterations such as stenosis and fistulas later. However, the physiologic uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in the bowel varies depending on several factors,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> being frequently observed in the cecum. This affects the sensitivity and the specificity of the test and initially represents a limitation for its use in this disease. It has been observed that physiologic intestinal uptake is more intense in older patients.</p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The potential applications of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT are in early diagnosis, evaluation of the activity, disease localization and extension (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>) and assessment of the efficacy of treatment. It would be especially indicated in cases with contraindication or intolerance to endoscopy (due to severe inflammation or obstruction with the risk of perforation), discordance between clinical data and analytical inflammatory parameters, in the diagnosis of fibrosis versus active inflammation and for the early detection of relapse. Another potential utility of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT is in the selection of patients who may benefit from surgery since, frequently, obstruction is more often due to active inflammation (which may be the result of medical treatment) than not only to fibrosis of the tissue.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Löffler et al. carried out a retrospective study of 23 children from 2 to 16 years of age with Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis and juvenile arthritis with or without enteritis. <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG was found to be an excellent non invasive tool to identify the involved bowel segments early, with a high sensitivity (98%) which was greater than that of endoscopy (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>90%) and ultrasonography (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>56%) and moderate specificity (68%), being lower than that of endoscopy (75%) and ultrasonography (92%). Thus, a negative PET excludes inflammation since it has a high negative predictive value (98%), and a positive PET should be evaluated within the clinical and analytical context as well as that of other tests (ultrasonography, endoscopy, and histology).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a></p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An excellent correlation has been observed between the inflammatory activity evaluated by <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG and the clinical activity measured by endoscopy, especially in the case of ulcerative colitis (95% vs. 81% in Crohn's disease).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a> In a prospective study carried out in 22 patients with Crohn's disease the sensitivity of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT to detect lesions observed on endoscopy was greater than 70%, being 100% in the detection of severe inflammation (deep ulcers, stenosis).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a> In another study including 59 patients with Crohn's disease a greater sensitivity was reported for PET in the detection of active disease (85.4%) compared with MR (40.9%) and scintigraphy with antigranulocyte antibodies (66.7%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a></p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Despite all of the above, there is still limited scientific evidence of the use of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT in inflammatory bowel disease. Although a very good correlation is generally found between the findings of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG and both clinical and analytical inflammatory activity and with endoscopic findings, the sensitivity is similar to that of labeled leucocytes and the specificity is lower and cannot, at present, replace the conventional studies.</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Study of atheroma plaque</span><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The development of atheroma plaque is a dynamic phenomenon which silently progresses along the decades prior to the production of clinical events. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of lipids, macrophages and monocytes, inflammation, necrosis and calcification of the vascular wall. The inflammation in the wall plays a critical role in the onset of the plaque, its progression and rupture. Histopathologic studies have demonstrated that unstable or vulnerable plaques have a larger necrotic nucleus rich in lipids and a more intense inflammatory component.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> Structural techniques show late changes such a wall thickening, calcification and stenosis without being able to determine whether the process is active. Molecular imaging allows in vivo characterization of the complex physiopathological processes involved in the different stages of plaque development, detecting the functional changes in the early phases and their grade of activity. In addition, the hybrid PET/CT equipment allows more precise anatomical localization of atheroma plaque and their correlation with the metabolic information.</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Different studies have demonstrated that the activated macrophages present in plaque are closely involved in plaque initiation, development and rupture.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54,55</span></a> These macrophages have elevated glucose consumption and, therefore, greater incorporation of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG, which increases with the grade of inflammation. Thus, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG is considered an early biological marker of plaque inflammation (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig. 5</a>). Its uptake has been closely related to cardiovascular risk factors and it is an independent predictor of future ischemic events.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a> More intense uptake has been reported in symptomatic than in asymptomatic carotid plaque in the same patient.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57,58</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG is also used in the assessment of the effect of antiinflammatory therapies. The first study in humans included oncologic patients treated with simvastatin or diet, observing an <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake decrease in the atheroma plaque at 3 months of therapy with simvastatine but not after diet.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a> A decrease in uptake has also been observed at one year after the reduction of the cardiovascular risk factors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a> and at 12 weeks after treatment with atorvastatin.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One very interesting subject is that of the evaluation of coronary atheromatosis. However, the technique has limitations due to the small size of the vessels, the physiologic uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in the myocardium, the effect of partial volume and cardiac and respiratory movements. These limitations may largely be solved with PET 4D equipment and with time-of-flight, PET/MR and new image reconstruction algorithms. The use of a low-carbohydrates and high-fat diet has also been proposed to reduce physiologic myocardial uptake.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a></p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The initial results obtained with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG are promising, although more studies are needed before considering their possible application in clinical health care. The pending issues to resolve are related to its prognostic significance, its utility in the development and monitoring of response to new treatments, the optimal time of image acquisition and its interpretation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57,63,64</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The implementation of their use is combined with the advantage of the use of leucocytes with those of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F and PET/CT to increase the sensitivity and specificity of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG. The main advantage over this is the minimum physiologic uptake in the gastrointestinal tract and renal system and the disadvantages are a more laborious labeling than that of leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span>In or <span class="elsevierStyleSup">99m</span>Tc, the need for trained personnel and special equipment. In addition, the efficiency of the labeling obtained is lower (from 72±8% for <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG versus 90<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>±<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5% for <span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span>In)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a> and is influenced by the level of blood glucose, is less stable and delayed images cannot be acquired due to the period of semidisintegration of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F, which reduces the specificity. Published studies are very scarce and their results have not been widely compared. In 1992 the viability of in vitro labeling of human leucocytes with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a> was demonstrated and posterior studies in animals and humans reported that leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG discriminated inflamed from normal tissue better than <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> A good correlation has also been observed between the grade of intestinal inflammation and the uptake of leucocytes labeled with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a></p><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In conclusion, <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT has demonstrated very promising results in the study of inflammatory disease, with greater scientific evidence in the case of vasculitis and sarcoidosis as recognized in the guidelines of the EANM and the SNMMI.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> The most accepted indications in the case of vasculitis are the diagnosis and assessment of inflammatory activity and its extension (especially in GCA). In sarcoidosis, the results obtained for the evaluation of extension of involvement and the grade of activity and therapeutic response are clearly superior to those achieved with <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga. The value of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG in other inflammatory diseases at this stage is debatable since the advantages over the other techniques available have not been demonstrated. In view of the current great demand for <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT in oncology we must adequately place the study within the context of the other conventional imaging (ultrasonography, CT, MR) and conventional nuclear medicine techniques. Prospective studies with a larger number of patients are necessary to clarify the many aspects pending response.</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Points of interest</span><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The fundamental indication of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT continues to be oncologic.</p><p id="par0255" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT has demonstrated to be a useful technique in the study of different inflammatory processes and its use is clearly expanding.</p><p id="par0260" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The principal indications of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT in large vessel vasculitis are diagnosis, assessment of the degree of activity, extension and treatment monitoring.</p><p id="par0265" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT has demonstrated clearly superior results to those of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span>Ga in the study of sarcoidosis, with a greater sensitivity for the assessment of disease extension and the degree of inflammatory activity and the detection of involvement in unsuspected sites.</p><p id="par0270" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In other inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT is still not considered of first choice.</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0275" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:18 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres289005" "titulo" => "Abstract" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec272474" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xres289006" "titulo" => "Resumen" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec272473" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Limitations of structural imaging techniques" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Conventional techniques in nuclear medicine" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "From conventional scintigraphy to the PET technique" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Contribution of molecular imaging with PET to different inflammatory diseases" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Large vessel vasculitis" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Sarcoidosis" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Rheumatoid arthritis" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Inflammatory bowel disease" ] 13 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Study of atheroma plaque" ] 14 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Leucocytes labeled with F-FDG" ] 15 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Points of interest" ] 16 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 17 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2013-06-26" "fechaAceptado" => "2013-07-06" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec272474" "palabras" => array:6 [ 0 => "Inflammation" 1 => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT" 2 => "Large vessel vasculitis" 3 => "Sarcoidosis" 4 => "Rheumatoid arthritis" 5 => "Atheromatosis" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec272473" "palabras" => array:6 [ 0 => "Inflamación" 1 => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/TC" 2 => "Vasculitis de grandes vasos" 3 => "Sarcoidosis" 4 => "Artritis reumatoide" 5 => "Ateromatosis" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The use of molecular imaging with PET/CT technology using different radiotracers, especially the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG is currently spreading beyond the area of oncology, the most interest being placed on inflammatory and infectious diseases. This article presents a review of its contribution in different inflammatory conditions in the context of structural and conventional nuclear medicine imaging. Special emphasis is placed on the more significant diseases such as large-vessel vasculitis, sarcoidosis, rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease and the study of the atheroma plaque.</p>" ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En la actualidad el uso de la imagen molecular con tecnología PET/TC con diferentes radiotrazadores, en especial la <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG, se está extendiendo más allá del ámbito de la oncología, siendo las enfermedades inflamatorias e infecciosas unas de las que más interés están despertando. En este artículo se hace una revisión de su aplicación y aportación en diferentes patologías inflamatorias en el contexto de las técnicas de imagen estructurales y de medicina nuclear convencional. Se hace especial énfasis en las de mayor entidad como son la vasculitis de grandes vasos, la sarcoidosis, la artritis reumatoide, la enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal y el estudio de la placa de ateroma.</p>" ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as: Martínez-Rodríguez I, Carril JM. Actualización del uso de radiotrazadores PET en patología inflamatoria. Rev Esp Med Nucl Imagen Mol. 2013;32:378–386.</p>" ] ] "multimedia" => array:7 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 624 "Ancho" => 1500 "Tamanyo" => 127052 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A 68-year-old woman was studied for suspicion of large vessel vasculitis. <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT (A: coronal, B: sagittal and C: axial slices) showing intense lineal uptake of <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG indicative of inflammatory activity in the vascular wall of the thoracic and abdominal aorta and at the beginning of the supra-aortic trunks.</p>" ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 910 "Ancho" => 1800 "Tamanyo" => 204284 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A 38-year-old man with histologically confirmed sarcoidosis. <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT (A: maximum intensity projection image, B: coronal slices and C: axial slices) showing extensive lymph node involvement (mediastinal, laterocervical, supraclavicular and bilateral axillary).</p>" ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 710 "Ancho" => 1400 "Tamanyo" => 134311 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A 50-year-old women with an acute episode of rheumatoid arthritis. <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT (A: maximum intensity projection image, B: coronal and axial slices of the shoulders and C: coronal and axial slices of the hips) demonstrating intense bilateral articular and periarticular uptake in the shoulders and hips.</p>" ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 872 "Ancho" => 1400 "Tamanyo" => 175950 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A 39-year-old male with an acute episode of Crohn's disease. In the <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT (A: maximum intensity projection image, B: coronal slices and C: axial slices) an increased <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake was observed in the wall of the ascending colon (demonstrating areas of dilatation and thickening and other zones of stenosis), transverse colon and a large part of the descending colon, the distal portion of which also presented dilatation. The involvement demonstrated by PET/CT was more extense than that determined by endoscopy.</p>" ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 679 "Ancho" => 1800 "Tamanyo" => 117759 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">A 67-year-old woman who had had a left ischemic stroke. The CT(A) shows atheroma plaque in the internal carotid artery of the same side (arrow) in relation to the symptomatology. The <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG PET/CT (B: sagittal slice of the fusion PET/CT and C: sagittal PET slice) showing focal and intense <span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG uptake in the plaque (arrows) indicative of inflammatory activity.</p>" ] ] 5 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Radiotracer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Mechanism \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-FDG \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Inflammation mediated by macrophages \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>C-(R)-PK11195 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Benzodiazepines receptor (macrophages) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>F-fluorocholine \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Inflammation mediated by macrophages (cellular proliferation) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>C-choline \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Inflammation mediated by macrophages (cellular proliferation) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span>Ga-DOTATATE \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Inflammation mediated by macrophages \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>C-acetate \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Fatty acid synthesis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span>Cu-nanoparticles \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Phagocytosis by macrophages \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab420783.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">PET radiotracers in the study of inflammatory disease.</p>" ] ] 6 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Pathology \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Vasculitis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Inflammatory bowel disease \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Rheumatic polymyalgia \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Fever of unknown origin \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Sarcoidosis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Idiopathic juvenile arthritis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Rheumatoid arthritis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Atheromatosis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Systemic erythematous lupus \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Asthma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab420782.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Inflammatory diseases in which different PET radiotracers are used.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:68 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Biological mediators of acute inflammation" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => "J.A. 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Continuing education
Update on the use of PET radiopharmaceuticals in inflammatory disease
Actualización del uso de radiotrazadores PET en patología inflamatoria
Servicio de Medicina Nuclear, Hospital Universitario «Marqués de Valdecilla», Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain