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How we think about depression: The role of linguistic framing
Como pensamos sobre la depresión: el rol del encuadre lingüístico
Florencia Reali
Corresponding author
f.reali96@uniandes.edu.co

Corresponding author.
, Tania Soriano, Daniela Rodríguez
Department of Psychology, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Over the last two decades&#44; accumulating work in cognitive science and cognitive linguistics has provided evidence that language shapes thought&#46; The way we frame things linguistically influences the way we conceptualize social matters such as political attitudes&#44; and moral and causal reasoning &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0020">Bergen&#44; 2012&#59; Lakoff&#44; 1987&#59; Lakoff &#38; Johnson&#44; 1980&#44; 1999&#59; Landau&#44; Meier&#44; &#38; Keefer&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#46; Linguistic framing shapes the way we perceive the world by constraining how we gather information about people&#44; events and situations &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160">Lakoff &#38; Johnson&#44; 1999</a>&#41;&#46; This paper extends this framework to the study of the influence of linguistic framing on the conceptualization of psychological problems&#44; focusing specifically on the case of depression&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Linguistic descriptions of psychological disorders vary according to culture and historical context&#46; For example&#44; framing mental illness as a brain <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> &#8211; as opposed to a reaction to or consequence of psychosocial factors &#8211; has been an observed trend in mental health discourse in recent years &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0045">Corrigan &#38; Watson&#44; 2004&#59; Horwitz &#38; Wakefield&#44; 2007&#59; Racine&#44; Waldman&#44; Rosenberg&#44; &#38; Illes&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#46; From a social perspective&#44; the phenomenon of medicalization of discourse conveys the threat of transforming human differences into pathologies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0040">Conrad&#44; 2007&#59; Wakefield&#44; 2007</a>&#41;&#46; In the case of depression&#44; many authors have stressed the importance of distinguishing between pathological depressive disorders &#40;which warrants medical attention&#41; and normal human sadness that emerges as a reaction to life events or personal contingencies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">Horwitz &#38; Wakefield&#44; 2007</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Medicalization phenomena results&#44; in part&#44; from an effort to decrease stigma&#46; The rationale behind it is that someone suffering a physical disease is not to blame for their affection &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0045">Corrigan &#38; Watson&#44; 2004&#59; Weiner&#44; Perry&#44; &#38; Magnusson&#44; 1988</a>&#41;&#46; However&#44; although biogenetic explanations might reduce perceived blame &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130">Kvaale&#44; Gottdiener&#44; &#38; Haslam&#44; 2013&#59; Kvaale&#44; Haslam&#44; &#38; Gottdiener&#44; 2013</a>&#41;&#44; they may also strengthen dangerous stereotypes suggesting that people with mental illness have no control over their behavior &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210">Read &#38; Law&#44; 1999</a>&#41;&#44; induce pessimistic prognosis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0130">Kvaale&#44; Gottdiener&#44; et al&#46;&#44; 2013&#59; Norman&#44; Windell&#44; &#38; Manchanda&#44; 2012</a>&#41;&#44; and increase the desire of social distance &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0115">Haslam&#44; 2011&#59; Kvaale&#44; Haslam&#44; et al&#46;&#44; 2013</a>&#41;&#46; On the other hand&#44; psychosocial explanations &#8211; framing psychological symptoms as reactions to life events &#8211; have been shown to reduce fear and improve attitudes toward people suffering from mental illness &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210">Read &#38; Law&#44; 1999</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Many experimental studies have explored the influence of biogenetic explanations on stereotype &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010">Aspinwall&#44; Brown&#44; &#38; Tabery&#44; 2012&#59; Boysen&#44; 2011&#59; Boysen &#38; Gabreski&#44; 2012&#59; Mehta &#38; Farina&#44; 1997</a>&#41;&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">Kvaale&#44; Gottdiener&#44; et al&#46; &#40;2013&#41;</a> and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Kvaale&#44; Haslam&#44; et al&#46; &#40;2013&#41;</a> analyzed data from 28 experimental studies exploring the effect of manipulating biogenetic and psychosocial explanations on attribution of blame&#44; dangerousness&#44; desire of social distance and prognostic pessimism in a range of psychological problems&#46; Their results revealed that promoting biogenetic explanations helps to reduce blame but induces prognostic pessimism&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The medicalization of discourse is evidenced by media coverage of psychiatric neuroscience &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205">Racine et al&#46;&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#46; As a consequence&#44; the layperson is increasingly exposed to disease-like descriptions of psychological problems as part of their everyday life&#46; Does the subtle exposure to linguistic frames shape the way we conceptualize mental health problems&#63; Although the relation between biogenetic causal beliefs of mental health problems and stereotype has been explored before &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0025">Boysen&#44; 2011&#59; Mehta &#38; Farina&#44; 1997</a>&#41;&#44; here we deal with a different question&#58; Does the mere instantiation of subtle contextual and metaphorical frames cause measurable effects on initial perceptions of a case of depression&#63;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The goal of this work is twofold&#58; We present the results from a corpus analysis &#8211; a standard method in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">corpus linguistics</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fn0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> &#8211; designed to investigate the frequency of the different types of linguistic frames used to describe depression in Latin American countries&#46; Second&#44; we explore whether subtle exposure to linguistic cues influences people&#39;s initial perception of a hypothetical case of depression&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Linguistic frames shape conceptual structure</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The concept of framing is ubiquitous in the social sciences&#46; According to <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080">Entman &#40;1993&#41;</a>&#44; framing involves selecting some aspects of a concept and highlighting their salience in a communicating text&#46; Importantly&#44; it promotes a certain causal and moral interpretation for the item described&#46; Framing could be realized by one or many sentences&#44; which could be metaphorical or literal&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Metaphors are one of the linguistic tools used for framing mental health problems&#46; For instance&#44; psychological disorders can be metaphorically described as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">opponents</span> that need to be fought against or as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">places in space</span> where one has fallen into&#46; We normally say things such as&#44; &#8220;you need to <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">fight</span> negative feelings&#8221;&#44; &#8220;sadness <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">got a hold</span> of her&#8221; or &#8220;I am <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">trapped inside</span> depression&#8221;&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Studies in cognitive science and cognitive linguistics have shown that the language we use affects our perception of people&#44; situations and events &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0155">Lakoff &#38; Johnson&#44; 1980&#44; 1999</a>&#41;&#46; Metaphorical frames influence a variety of cognitive domains such as time perception &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035">Casasanto&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#44; social cognition &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">Landau et al&#46;&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#44; memory &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0095">Faucey &#38; Boroditsky&#44; 2010&#44; 2011</a>&#41;&#44; moral and causal reasoning &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065">Dehghani&#44; Gentner&#44; Forbus&#44; Ekhtiari&#44; &#38; Sachdeva&#44; 2009&#59; Pickering &#38; Majid&#44; 2007&#59; Spellman &#38; Holyoak&#44; 1992</a>&#41;&#44; problem solving &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250">Thibodeau &#38; Boroditsky&#44; 2011</a>&#41;&#44; and political attitudes &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0170">Landau et al&#46;&#44; 2010&#59; Matlock&#44; 2012</a>&#41;&#46; For instance&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250">Thibodeau and Boroditsky &#40;2011&#41;</a> showed that even very subtle variations in linguistic framing used to describe crime as a social problem influence participants&#8217; opinions about effective strategies to solve the problem &#40;crime&#41;&#46; In another study&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">Landau et al&#46; &#40;2010&#41;</a> showed that when people read an essay describing the United States in terms of a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">body</span>&#44; while having heard discussions on how germs can penetrate and hurt the body&#44; they change their opinions about immigration&#46; More recently&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180">Faucey and Matlock &#40;2012&#41;</a> showed that the wording of political messages affects political attitudes&#44; including judgments about whether or not candidates will be elected &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020">Bergen&#44; 2012</a>&#44; for a review&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Lakoff and Johnson &#40;1980&#41;</a> proposed that the conceptual structure of emotions emerges through metaphorization of more concrete&#44; palpable concepts such as heat&#44; cold&#44; fire&#44; liquid or spatial orientations&#46; Emotions are not considered merely as feelings separated from thought&#44; but rather as endowed with a complex conceptual structure&#44; which is grounded &#8211; embodied &#8211; in physiological or physical reactions&#44; such as rise of temperature&#44; increase in heart rate or body posture associated with particular moods&#46; Along these lines&#44; the ontology of the concepts of emotions can be explained through mappings between target domains &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; emotions&#41; and concrete source domains&#44; such as spatial or temperature concepts&#44; as in HAPPY IS UP or ANGER IS HEAT&#46; This view is supported by numerous analyses of metaphorical expressions used in reference to emotions such as anger&#44; hope&#44; love and lust among others &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0145">K&#246;vecses&#44; 2000&#59; Lakoff&#44; 1987</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Some of these ideas have started to leak into psychiatric and medical literature &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Eynon&#44; 2002</a>&#41;&#46; For example&#44; the impact of metaphors used to describe cancer and AIDS has been explored in the field of health discourse &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105">Frank&#44; 1995&#59; Sontag&#44; 1989</a>&#41;&#46; More recently&#44; in a paper by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">Coveney&#44; Netlich&#44; and Martin &#40;2009&#41;</a>&#44; metaphorical frame analysis of media coverage of a sleep drug &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Modafil</span>&#41; has been used to investigate the medicalization of sleep at a conceptual level&#46; They investigated the conceptual links created in the media discourse between sleep and health&#44; through the analysis of the contextual and metaphorical framing used to refer to the drug in the UK media&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on the principles of the Conceptual Metaphor Theory developed by Lakoff and colleagues&#44; recent works have studied metaphors of depression in the case of English &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060">Charteris-Black&#44; 2012&#59; Demj&#233;n&#44; 2011&#59; Hunt &#38; Carter&#44; 2012&#59; McMullen &#38; Conway&#44; 2002&#59; Schoeneman&#44; Schoeneman&#44; &#38; Stallings&#44; 2004</a>&#41;&#46; For example&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220">Schoeneman et al&#46; &#40;2004&#41;</a> have identified metaphors of depression within William Styron&#39;s memoirs&#46; In another study&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">Charteris-Black &#40;2012&#41;</a> looked at metaphors of depression in interviews of people who had experienced it&#44; comparing the nature of expressions by gender&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Here we study metaphors of depression in Spanish&#46; In the next section we describe the results of a corpus analysis of contemporary Latin American Spanish&#44; showing that the relative frequency of some linguistic frames of depression has changed in the last three decades&#46; Our results are in line with the medicalization trend observed worldwide&#46; Moreover the corpus revealed common metaphorical frames of depression&#46; Further below&#44; we show results from a survey experiment suggesting that subtle instantiations of contextual and metaphorical framing shapes the way people perceive different aspects of the problem&#46;</p><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Corpus analysis</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The current analysis was designed to provide an account of the kinds of linguistic frames used to refer to <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depression</span> in four Latin American countries&#58; Colombia&#44; Argentina&#44; Chile and Mexico&#46; Frames&#44; as conceived in cognitive linguistics&#44; organize information in discourse by focusing on certain interpretations over others&#46; We aimed to identify disease-like descriptions and metaphorical frames of depression&#46; Broadly speaking&#44; metaphors are linguistic forms in which one thing is described in terms of some other thing&#46; Cognitive Linguistic theory proposes that metaphors are not just ornamental features of language but they play a role in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Lakoff &#38; Johnson&#44; 1980</a>&#41;&#46; The validity of using linguistic data as evidence of cognitive representations has been subject of debate &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035">Casasanto&#44; 2010&#59; Edwards&#44; 1991</a>&#41;&#46; Here&#44; we adhere to the view that the study of cognitions benefits from the analysis of linguistic expressions since they are systematically tied to the conceptual system &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0155">Lakoff &#38; Johnson&#44; 1980&#59; Sauciuc&#44; 2009</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the field of cognitive linguistics&#44; conceptual metaphors are conventionally written in capital letters as&#58; TARGET DOMAIN IS SOURCE DOMAIN&#46; The target domain corresponds to the subject of reference&#44; and the source domain is the concept from which we draw inferences about the target &#40;usually more concrete than the target&#41;&#46; Metaphorical frames establish a correspondence between two conceptual domains&#46; For example&#44; the metaphor <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depression is a deep place</span> establishes a conceptual mapping between a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">source</span> domain &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; space&#41; and a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">target</span> domain &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; depression&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Metaphors for emotions have been described in a wide range of languages &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140">K&#246;vecses&#44; 2010</a>&#44; for a review&#41;&#46; Although the same metaphor &#8211; that is&#44; the same mapping between source and target domains &#8211; may be said to exist in many languages&#44; the corresponding linguistic expressions of the metaphor may not be exactly the same&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In recent years&#44; the study of metaphors in discourse has flourished &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225">Semino&#44; 2008</a>&#41;&#46; The identification of contextual and metaphorical frames in corpora has benefited from the development of criteria and methods for quantification of metaphorical expressions &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245">Stefanowitsch &#38; Gries&#44; 2006</a>&#41;&#46; One way in which linguistic frames can be identified is through the searching of occurrences of lexical items that refer directly to the target domain concepts&#46; The researcher then identifies the cases where the lexical item &#40;target word&#41; is embedded in metaphorical expressions as well as the kind of conceptual mappings in place &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240">Stefanowitsch&#44; 2004</a>&#41;&#46; In the present study&#44; the target word was <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depresi&#243;n</span> &#40;depression&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The corpus we used is the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">CREA</span> corpus of written Spanish &#40;Banco de datos <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">CREA online&#44; 2012</a> &#8211; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corpus de referencia del espa&#241;ol actual&#46;</span><a id="intr0005" class="elsevierStyleInterRef" href="http://www.rae.es/">http&#58;&#47;&#47;www&#46;rae&#46;es</a>&#41;&#46; The corpus contains over 160 million words&#44; including written texts &#40;90&#37;&#41; from a variety of sources&#44; and oral transcriptions &#40;10&#37;&#41;&#46; The corpus includes texts and transcriptions from different Spanish speaking countries &#8211; Spain &#40;50&#37;&#41; and Latin American countries &#40;50&#37;&#41;&#46; Texts vary also by source type&#58; 49&#37; of texts come from press&#44; 49&#37; from books &#8211;fiction and non-fiction &#8211; and 2&#37; from other written sources such as emails and brochures&#46; Non-fiction books cover a wide range of topics&#44; such as politics&#44; economics&#44; technology&#44; social sciences&#44; finance&#44; arts&#44; science and miscellanea&#46; For the purpose of this study&#44; we conducted a target search over all texts in CREA coming from Argentina &#8211; 231 books &#40;9&#46;514&#46;218 words&#41;&#44; 8&#46;166 press documents &#40;4&#46;167&#46;708 words&#41;&#44; 67 miscellanea texts &#40;25&#46;574 words&#41;&#59; Colombia &#8211; 44 books &#40;2&#46;091&#46;379 words&#41;&#44; 5&#46;094 press documents &#40;2&#46;091&#46;379 words&#41;&#44; 47 miscellanea texts &#40;33&#46;616 words&#41;&#59; Chile &#8211; 84 books &#40;3&#46;218&#46;986 words&#41;&#44; 4&#46;383 press documents &#40;3&#46;256&#46;031 words&#41;&#44; 7 miscellanea texts &#40;19&#46;949 words&#41;&#59; and Mexico &#8211; 210 books &#40;8&#46;967&#46;998 words&#41;&#44; 6&#46;292 press documents &#40;4&#46;752&#46;464 words&#41;&#44; 29 miscellanea texts &#40;60&#46;734 words&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We extracted all sentences where the target word <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depresi&#243;n</span> &#40;depression&#41; appeared&#46; Each sentence was then analyzed to determine whether the target word was embedded in a frame of interest&#46; In order to identify metaphors we used the following criterion&#46; We considered an individual expression containing the lexical item <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depresi&#243;n</span> as metaphorical when&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">1&#46;</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The expression includes one or more relevant lexical items that&#44; in context&#44; refer to the word <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depresi&#243;n</span> &#40;depression&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">and</span> have another sense &#40;related to the source domain&#41; that has not to do with sadness per se&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The target domain <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depression</span> can be said to be related to the source domain sense via a cross-domain mapping instantiated by the relevant lexical items in 1&#46;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although this criterion was created <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ad hoc</span> for the purpose of our study&#44; it is not inconsistent with the steps specified by the standard metaphorical identification procedure &#40;MIP&#41; developed by the Pragglejaz Group &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110">Pragglejaz&#44; 2007</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Consider&#44; for example&#44; the expression <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">getting out of depression</span>&#46; The target word depression &#40;target conceptual domain&#41; is related to the source domain PLACE IN SPACE&#44; via cross-domain mapping instantiated by the relevant lexical items <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">getting out of</span>&#44; which refer to depression but have another &#40;spatial&#41; sense that has not to do with sadness per se&#46; Then the metaphorical mapping from source domain PLACE IN SPACE onto the target domain <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depression</span> is established by the use of the relevant lexical items <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">getting out of</span>&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Now we consider the analysis of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span>-frame of depression&#46; Should we consider it a metaphor&#63; The definition of metaphor assumes the existence of conceptual mapping across two different domains&#46; However&#44; it is unclear whether symptoms of depression result from biological or biochemical factors&#44; or just emerge as a psychosocial reaction to life events&#46; Moreover&#44; causes may vary on a case-to-case basis&#46; Since metaphor definition requires the instantiation of a conceptual mapping across non-overlapping domains&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frames were not considered metaphors in the strict sense&#46; Rather&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame of depression was defined using a more general notion&#44; according to which a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">frame</span> entails the highlighting of one conceptual structure &#40;depression&#41; against the background of another &#40;disease&#41; within an encompassing conceptual relation &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055">Croft&#44; 1993</a>&#41;&#46; Along these lines&#44; the following criterion was used for identification&#58; an individual expression containing the target word <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depression</span> was considered framed as a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> when one or more of the lexical items that refer to depression have a medical&#44; biological&#44; genetic or chemical sense&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Consider&#44; for example&#44; the expression <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">the cure of depression</span>&#46; The use of the lexical item <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">cure</span>&#44; instantiates an implicit mapping between depression and disease&#46; That is&#44; the target concept &#40;depression&#41; is highlighted against the background of the encompassing concept of disease&#44; via the use of the expression <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">cure</span>&#46; In other cases&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame is instantiated through statements that explicitly flesh out disease-like characterizations or biogenetic explanations as in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depression is a disease</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">the biological causes of depression</span> or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">the genotype of depression</span>&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Results</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The total number of hits for the word <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">depresi&#243;n</span> was 968&#46; Among these&#44; we counted 523 hits in texts from Argentina distributed over 118 different documents&#44; 243 hits in texts from Mexico distributed over 103 documents&#44; 136 hits in texts from Chile&#44; distributed over 64 different documents&#44; and 66 hits in texts from Colombia distributed over 32 different documents&#46; Individual expressions containing the target word were individually analyzed according to the criteria described above&#46; We identified 166 linguistic frames of interest and they were classified as follows&#58; 71 expressions were tagged as some version of the metaphorical frame DEPRESSION IS A PLACE IN SPACE&#44; 29 expressions were tagged as some version of the metaphorical frame DEPRESSION IS AN OPPONENT and 62 expressions were labeled as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span>-frame&#46; Finally&#44; 4 expressions were tagged as other metaphors &#40;two of them as the metaphor DEPRESSION IS A NATURAL FORCE and the other two as DEPRESSION IS A TREE&#47;PLANT&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The spatial metaphor was based around the use of expressions that construed depression a place in space to and from which a person could enter or get out&#46; Expressions identified as examples of the metaphor DEPRESSION IS A PLACE IN SPACE included many versions of the general formula&#46; For example&#44; depression was sometimes compared to a dark place or to a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">pit</span>&#44; as in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">salir del pozo</span> &#40;getting out of the pit&#41;&#46; Other expressions were characterized by the presence of spatial terms such as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">falling into</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">getting out</span> of or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">standing up from</span> depression&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The opponent metaphorical frame was based around the use of expressions that constructed depression as an adversary&#44; enemy or competitor&#46; For example&#44; depression construed as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">attacking</span>&#44; or something worth <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">combating</span>&#46; Different linguistic expressions corresponding to the opponent metaphorical frame were found&#46; Some of them included struggle-related terms such as fighting or defending against depression&#46; Expressions in which depression was described as a beast or an animal were also counted as examples of the general formula because struggle or confrontational themes were implicit in the wording &#40;see examples below&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Expressions identified as examples of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame included expressions explicitly stating disease-like nature or biogenetic causes of depression as well as expressions that implicitly established a relation between depression and disease through the use of disease-related terms &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; cure or drugs&#41;&#46; Importantly&#44; in all cases&#44; the target concept &#40;depression&#41; is highlighted against the background of the encompassing concept of disease or biogenetic phenomena&#46;</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The following examples illustrate the main patterns observed in the corpus data&#58;</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">SPATIAL metaphorical frame<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0010"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">cay&#243; en una profunda</span> depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">he fell into &#91;a&#93; deep</span> depression&#41;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230;s<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">alir de</span> la depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">get out of</span> depression&#41;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">desbarrancarse</span> en la depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">to fall over the cliff out of</span> depression&#41;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">OPPONENT metaphorical frame<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0015"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">me agarr&#243;</span> una depresi&#243;n &#40;depression <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">got a hold of me</span>&#41;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">combatir</span> la depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">to fight</span> depression&#41;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">en garras</span> de la depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">within the claws</span> of depression&#41;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Disease</span> frame<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0020"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045"><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">la enfermedad</span> de la depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">the disease of</span> depression&#41;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0050"><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">curarse</span> de la depresi&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">to cure from</span> depression&#41;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0055"><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8230; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">la depresi&#243;n de Javier se me empez&#243; a contagiar</span> &#40;&#8217;Javier has started giving me his depression&#41;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The spatial metaphor frame was the most frequent one&#46; An influential analysis of conceptual metaphors of emotions by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Lakoff &#40;1987&#41;</a> proposed that EMOTIONS ARE BOUNDED SPACES is a general metaphor that applies to anger as well as to other emotions &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Lakoff&#44; 1987</a>&#58; 396&#8211;397&#41;&#46; In the same work he proposes that the opponent metaphor frame was previously described in relation to the case of anger&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">Lakoff &#40;1987&#41;</a> argues that anger is understood in our folk model as negative emotion&#46; It produces undesirable physiological reactions&#44; leads to an inability to function normally and is a danger to others&#46; The angry person&#44; recognizing this danger&#44; views his anger as an opponent in a struggle &#40;1987&#44; p&#46; 391&#41; A similar line of reasoning could be applied to the case of depression &#8211; feeling sad can also lead to the inability to function normally&#46; Thus&#44; conceptualizing depression as an opponent that needs to be confronted comes as a natural choice&#46;</p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In addition&#44; the data revealed significant changes in the relative frequencies of the observed framings over time&#46; The CREA corpus includes documents dating from 1975 to 2004&#46; Time was divided into three five-year periods &#40;1990&#8211;1994&#44; 1995&#8211;1999 and 2000&#8211;2004&#41; and one 15-year period &#40;1975&#8211;1989&#41;&#46; The first period was longer than the other three in order to have comparable number of examples to compare across periods&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> shows the frequency of occurrence of the three main patterns across time&#46; A Pearson&#39;s chi-squared test revealed a significant unevenness of distribution over the four time periods &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>20&#46;15&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">df</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;003&#59; Cramer&#39;s V<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;25&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Frequency distribution in the three patterns changed in recent decades as shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#46; Since 1990&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame has gained popularity&#44; &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>18&#46;34&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">df</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;0004&#59; Cramer&#39;s V<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;13&#41;&#46; The data are consistent with the trend toward medicalization of mental health discourse documented in the literature &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120">Horwitz &#38; Wakefield&#44; 2007</a>&#41; as well as the increase of biogenetic explanations of psychological problems observed in the media worldwide &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205">Racine et al&#46;&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The spatial metaphor became significantly less popular &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;56&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">df</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;014&#44; Cramer&#39;s V<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;10&#41;&#46; The relative frequency of occurrence of the metaphor DEPRESSION IS AN OPPONENT increased in number over the years but the difference did not reach significance &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;84&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">df</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ns</span>&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;27&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Now we turn to the question of whether subtle instantiations of linguistic frames &#8211; of the kind studied in the corpus analysis &#8211; are sufficient to produce measurable effects on conceptualization of symptoms and causes of depression&#46; The next survey study was designed to explore this question&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Survey experiment&#58; linguistic framing of depression</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Trends in mental health discourse motivate the question of whether the way we talk about psychological disorders affects how people perceive the problem and its causes&#46; Previous work has explored whether exposure to biogenetic explanations of mental health disorders affect attitudes and beliefs &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010">Aspinwall et al&#46;&#44; 2012&#59; Boysen&#44; 2011&#59; Boysen &#38; Gabreski&#44; 2012</a>&#59; Kemp et al&#46;&#44; 2014&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">Kvaale&#44; Gottdiener&#44; et al&#46;&#44; 2013</a>&#41;&#46; However&#44; it is not clear whether the mere instantiation of linguistic frames &#8211; without incurring in full-blown explanation of the causes &#8211; are capable of producing measurable effects on beliefs&#46; Moreover&#44; we are also interested in the effect of using metaphors &#8211; such as place-in-space or opponent metaphors &#8211; to describe depression&#46;</p><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We used an experimental paradigm inspired on the one used by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250">Thibodeau and Boroditsky &#40;2011&#41;</a>&#44; where subtle differences in metaphorical framing were manipulated in a description about a hypothetical case of local <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">crime</span> &#8211; crime as a virus vs&#46; crime as a beast&#46; They provided participants with a fake report about increasing crime rates in a certain city and asked them to propose a solution&#46; The results showed that the use of metaphors influenced how people proposed solving crime problems&#46;</p><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this study participants were exposed to a description of a fake case of depression followed by a number of questions designed to assess their initial interpretations of the information they had read&#46; The description varied across condition in that depression was framed differently &#8211; either as a disease or neutrally&#44; and metaphorically described as an opponent or as a place-in-space&#46;</p><p id="par0255" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The experiment was a two-factorial fully crossed between participants design&#46; The first factor was disease-frame with two levels&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> vs&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">neutral</span> frames&#46; The second factor was the metaphorical frame type&#44; which included two levels&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">opponent</span> metaphor vs&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">place-in-space</span> metaphor&#46; Four types of questionnaires were created&#44; each corresponding to one of the following conditions&#58; 1&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame X <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">opponen</span>t metaphor&#59; 2&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">place-in-space</span> metaphor&#59; 3&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">neutral</span> frame X <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">opponent</span> metaphor&#59; 4&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">neutral</span> frame X <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">place-in-space</span> metaphor&#46; The 2X2 design allowed us to test for possible interactions between disease-frame and metaphor type&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Method</span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Ethics statement</span><p id="par0260" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The experiment reported here was done in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki&#44; and it followed the ethical requirements of the Universidad de los Andes institutional ethical review board&#46; Participants were informed that their data would be treated anonymously and that they could terminate the experiment at any time without providing any reason&#46; We received written informed consent from all participants before they participated in the experiment&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Participants</span><p id="par0265" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ninety-six students from Universidad de Andes &#40;47 male&#44; 49 female&#41; volunteered to participate in the study&#46; All participants were 18 or older and declared their native language was Spanish&#46; The average age of the participants was 21&#46;0&#59; ages ranged from 18 to 29&#46; Participants were enrolled in different programs including Engineering &#40;33&#46;3&#37;&#41;&#44; Social Sciences &#40;25&#37;&#41;&#44; Administration &#40;12&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#44; Medicine &#40;7&#46;3&#37;&#41;&#44; Exact and Biological Sciences &#40;6&#46;3&#37;&#41;&#44; Economics &#40;5&#46;2&#37;&#41;&#44; Art and Humanities &#40;5&#46;2&#37;&#41;&#44; Architecture and Design &#40;3&#46;1&#37;&#41; and Law &#40;2&#46;1&#37;&#41;&#46; The data were collected between September 2013 and April 2014&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Materials and procedure</span><p id="par0270" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Each participant was presented with one of four versions of a description of a fake case of depression&#46; Each version of the text differed only in the choice of disease&#47;neutral frame and the kind of metaphorical frame used to describe depression&#46; Linguistic frames varied across conditions according to the 2 X 2 design described above&#46; The second paragraph of the text consisted of the listing of four common symptoms taken from the fourth edition of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</span> &#40;DSM IV&#59; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005">American Psychiatric Association&#44; 2000</a>&#41;&#46; The symptoms were identically described in all conditions&#46; Questionnaires corresponding to each of the four conditions were evenly distributed across participants&#46; The paragraph read as follows&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0035"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0100"><p id="par0275" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Juana tiene 20 a&#241;os y es una estudiante muy juiciosa&#46; Hace cinco semanas Juana ha <span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#123;sido atacada por</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#47;ca&#237;do en</span><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#125;</span> un&#40;a&#41; &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">feroz&#47;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">profunda</span>&#125; &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">enfermedad</span>&#47;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">estado</span></span>&#125; de depresi&#243;n&#46; Sus familiares y amigos est&#225;n muy preocupados y desean ayudarla para que ella &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">salga de&#47;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">luche contra</span>&#125; la &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">patolog&#237;a</span>&#47;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">situaci&#243;n</span></span>&#125; &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">que la tiene prisionera</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#47;donde se encuentra</span>&#125;&#46; Es muy importante que Juana est&#233; dispuesta a hacer todo lo posible para &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">curarse de</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">superar</span>&#125; este&#40;a&#41; &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">temible</span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">oscuro</span>&#125; &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">s&#237;ndrome</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">condici&#243;n</span></span>&#125; depresiva&#40;o&#41;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0105"><p id="par0280" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Juana ha presentado los siguientes &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">signos</span>&#47;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">s&#237;ntomas</span></span>&#125; durante las &#250;ltimas cinco semanas&#46; Ha perdido del inter&#233;s en casi todas las actividades y personas casi cada d&#237;a&#46; Presenta llanto continuo durante cuatro o m&#225;s horas al d&#237;a&#46; Ha perdido considerable peso sin hacer dieta&#46; Adem&#225;s presenta insomnio cinco de cada siete d&#237;as de la semana&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0110"><p id="par0285" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#91;tr&#46; Juana is a 20 year old Music major&#46; She has always had good grades and her parents feel proud of her&#46; Five weeks ago she &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">was attacked by</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#47;fell into</span>&#125; a &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">fierce</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#47;deep</span>&#125; &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">disease</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">state</span></span>&#125; of depression&#46; Her friends and family are worried and want to help her &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">fight against</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#47;get out</span>&#125; the &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">pathology</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">situation</span></span>&#125;&#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">where she is at</span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">that has caught her</span></span>&#125;&#46; It is very important that Juana is willing to do all in she can to &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">find a cure from</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">overcome</span></span>&#125; such a &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">fierce</span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">dark</span>&#125; depressive &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">syndrome&#47;</span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">condition</span>&#125;&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0115"><p id="par0290" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Juana presented the following &#123;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">symptoms</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">signs</span></span>&#125; over the last five weeks&#46; She has lost of interest in almost all activities and people almost every day&#46; She presents continuous crying over four or more hours a day&#46; She lost weight without engaging on a special diet&#46; She has suffered from insomnia five out of seven days&#46;&#93;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0295" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lexical items in underlined bold correspond to the <span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">disease frame</span></span> and those in underlined italics font correspond to <span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">neutral frame</span></span> condition&#46; Lexical items in non-underlined bold correspond to the <span class="elsevierStyleBold">opponent</span> metaphor and those in non-underlined italics font correspond to <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">place-in-space</span> metaphor condition&#46; Each of the four questionnaires corresponded to the one of the following factorial combinations&#58; 1&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">disease frame</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">opponent</span> metaphor&#59; 2&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">disease frame</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">place-in-space</span> metaphor&#59; 3&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">Neutral frame</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">opponent</span> metaphor&#59; 4&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic"><span class="elsevierStyleUnderline">Neutral frame</span></span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">place-in-space</span> metaphor&#46;</p><p id="par0300" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Participants were instructed to read the paragraph&#44; turn the page and not to go back once the page had been turned&#46; Response items were listed in the second page of the survey&#44; consisting of eight seven-point Likert-like questions designed to assess participants&#8217; interpretations of the information they had just read&#46; The questions were the following and were counterbalanced in order&#58; In a scale from 1 to 7&#44; where 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">not likely at all</span>&#44; and 7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">very likely</span>&#44;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0025"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0060"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0305" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;How likely do you think it is that Juana will recover to live a normal life&#63;&#8221;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0065"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0310" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;How likely do you think it is that Juana will improve her situation within the next three weeks&#63;&#8221;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0315" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a scale from 1 to 7&#44; where 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">completely disagree</span>&#44; and 7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">completely agree</span>&#44; please rate how much you agree with the following statements&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0030"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0070"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0320" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;Juana is responsible for her condition&#8221;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0075"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0325" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;It is better to be away from people like Juana&#8221;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0080"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0330" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;Juana has no control over what is happening to her&#8221;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0085"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0335" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;Juana is a dangerous person&#8221;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0090"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0340" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;What happens to Juana could be due to social factors&#8221;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0095"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0345" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;What happens to Juana could be caused by lack of social support&#46;&#8221;</p></li></ul></p></span></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Results</span><p id="par0350" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A 2 X 2 &#40;disease-frame X metaphor type&#41; factorial analysis of variance tested the effects of disease framing and metaphor type on participants&#8217; first impressions of case described in the paragraph&#46; Results were analyzed using multivariate analysis of variance &#40;MANOVA&#41; taking responses to questions in the survey as dependent variables and disease-frame and metaphor-type as independent variables&#46; The MANOVA analysis showed a significant multivariate effect for responses as a group in relation to disease framing &#40;disease vs&#46; neutral&#58; Roy&#39;s largest root<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;222&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;8&#44;85&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;36&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;024&#41; and a significant interaction between disease frame and metaphor type &#40;Roy&#39;s largest root<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;222&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;8&#44;85&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;32&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;026&#41;&#46; However&#44; the effect of metaphor type on responses as a group did not reach significance &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;267&#41;&#46; Results from univariant analyses of the individual item responses are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0355" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Results indicated a significant main effect for the disease-frame factor on people&#39;s responses to the responsibility question&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;92&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>15&#46;43&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;001&#46; Disease-like frame conditions elicited lower rating on average&#44; suggesting that perception of the patient&#39;s responsibility decreased in this condition&#46; The effect of metaphor type on responsibility ratings was marginally significant&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;92&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;7&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;057&#44; suggesting that depression framed as an opponent elicited lower perceptions of patient&#39;s responsibility&#46; Overall&#44; framing depression as a disease and opponent elicited the lower rates on responsibility &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;0&#41; and framing it neutrally and as a place in space elicited the higher rates &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;7&#41; &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a> for mean comparisons&#41;&#46; There was no significant interaction between factors&#46;</p><p id="par0360" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There was a significant main effect for metaphor type on people agreement toward the statement &#8220;It is better to be away from people like Juana&#8221;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;92&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;55&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;035&#46; Framing depression as an opponent elicited higher agreement levels &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;5&#41; compared to framing it as a place-in-space &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;8&#41;&#46; The effect of the disease-frame was not significant&#44; and neither was the interaction between the two factors&#46;</p><p id="par0365" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A significant interaction was found between the disease-frame and metaphor type in participants&#8217; agreement to the statement &#8220;what happens to Juana could be due to social factors&#8221; &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44; 92&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>14&#46;35&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;001&#41;&#46; The file was split by disease-frame type groups in order to examine the interaction&#46; Among the group of participants in the disease-frame condition&#44; the opponent metaphor condition elicited higher agreement levels &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;41&#41; than the place-in-space metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;37&#41;&#44; &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;46&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;01&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;030&#41;&#46; In contrast&#44; the effect of metaphor type was the opposite &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;46&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;23&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;002&#41;&#58; lower agreement levels were observed in the opponent metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;83&#41; compared to the place-in-space metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;12&#41;&#46; This suggests that people attribute more of a causal role to social factors in the place-in-space metaphor condition when depression is framed neutrally&#44; but the opposite occurs when it is framed as a disease&#46;</p><p id="par0370" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similar results were shown by univariate analysis of degree of agreement to item &#8220;What happens to Juana could be caused by lack of social support&#8221;&#46; A significant interaction was found between disease-frame and metaphor type &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;92&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;67&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;033&#41;&#46; The file was split by disease-frame type groups to examine this interaction&#46; It was found that among participants in the disease-frame condition there was a significant effect of metaphor type &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span>&#40;1&#44;46&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;15&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;047&#41; indicating higher agreement levels in the opponent metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;50&#41; compared to the place-in-space metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;63&#41;&#46; In contrast&#44; among participants in the neutral-frame condition the pattern of results was the opposite&#58; ratings in the opponent metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;58&#41; were lower than ratings in the place-in-space metaphor condition &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;08&#41;&#44; however&#44; the difference did not reach significance &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ns</span>&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;292&#41;&#46; Then&#44; this trend is the same as those observed in people&#39;s rating of importance of social causes&#46; Finally&#44; there was no other significant difference across conditions in the rest of the questionnaire items&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Discussion</span><p id="par0375" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The corpus analysis revealed two major metaphorical patterns used to refer to depression in the analyzed texts&#44; which were described as DEPRESSION IS A PLACE IN SPACE and the DEPRESSION IS AN OPPONENT metaphors&#46; These two conceptual metaphors have been previously described in Cognitive Linguistics literature as playing a key role in the conceptualization of emotions &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0150">Lakoff&#44; 1987&#59; Lakoff &#38; Johnson&#44; 1980</a>&#41;&#46; In addition&#44; the corpus analysis revealed that depression is frequently framed as a physical <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span>&#46; Importantly&#44; the relative frequency of this pattern has increased significantly over the past three decades in the Latin American corpus data&#44; consistently with the trend toward medicalization of mental health discourse observed worldwide &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0045">Corrigan &#38; Watson&#44; 2004&#59; Conrad&#44; 2007</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0380" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The relation between biogenetic causal beliefs and stereotype has been explored before&#46; However&#44; the current study deals with a related but different question&#58; Does the mere instantiation of linguistic cues cause measurable effects on the perception of depression&#63; Our findings suggest that exposure to linguistic cues is enough to produce effects on first impressions&#44; biasing participants toward certain interpretations over others&#46; This is consistent with an increasing number of studies showing that contextual and metaphorical framing influences a variety of cognitive domains such as social cognition &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">Landau et al&#46;&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#44; moral and causal reasoning &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0065">Dehghani et al&#46;&#44; 2009&#59; Pickering &#38; Majid&#44; 2007&#59; Spellman &#38; Holyoak&#44; 1992</a>&#41;&#44; problem solving &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250">Thibodeau &#38; Boroditsky&#44; 2011</a>&#41;&#44; and political attitudes &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0170">Landau et al&#46;&#44; 2010&#59; Matlock&#44; 2012</a>&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0385" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The survey results showed that the disease-frame produced higher rates of perception of patient&#39;s responsibility&#46; This is consistent with the established association between reduction of blame and biogenetic explanations of psychological problems &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Kvaale&#44; Haslam&#44; et al&#46;&#44; 2013</a> for a review&#41;&#46; The data also revealed that participants exposed to the opponent metaphor agreed more with the statement that it is better to be away from the depressed person&#46; Finally&#44; we found an interaction between disease-frame and metaphor type in participants&#8217; perceptions of the importance of social factors&#58; when depression was framed neutrally &#40;not as a disease&#41;&#44; participants in the place-in-space metaphor condition favored social-related causal explanations compared to those in the opponent metaphor condition&#44; while the opposite was true when depression was framed as a disease&#46;</p><p id="par0390" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Taken together&#44; the results suggest that subtle linguistic framings of depression trigger participants&#8217; initial interpretations about plausible causes underlying the problem&#46; But&#44; how do linguistic frames work&#63; According to Conceptual Metaphor Theory&#44; the meaning we give to abstract&#44; social or emotion concepts depends not only on the schematic knowledge derived from culture and experience&#44; but also on how abstract thought is <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">structured</span> in terms of more concrete concepts &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170">Landau et al&#46;&#44; 2010</a>&#41;&#46; In other words&#44; structural metaphors produce systematicity in the way concepts are organized&#58; the target domain becomes structured in terms of the source domain through a process of metaphorical mapping&#46; As a consequence&#44; linguistic frames shape the way we perceive things by highlighting certain aspects of situations and hiding others&#44; affecting how we gather and put together information about people and events&#46;</p><p id="par0395" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Along these lines&#44; some of the results in our study could be interpreted as a consequence of the cross-domain mapping of attributes from source domain to target domain&#46; For example&#44; framing depression as an opponent might highlight the importance of fighting against symptoms or having a combative attitude as a patient&#46; On the other hand&#44; framing depression as a place in space might highlight the importance of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">surroundings</span> or environmental factors because &#8220;spatial&#8221; attributes are moved to the foreground during perception&#46; The observed interaction between disease-frame and metaphor type on perceptions of social causes could be explained as follows&#46; Contextual or social factors are highlighted by the use of space metaphors because spatial attributes such as environmental surroundings become salient&#46; However&#44; contextual factors will matter especially when depression is framed neutrally &#8211; described as a non-medical problem rather than a disease &#8211; because the social environment is less likely to produce a biogenetic condition&#46;</p><p id="par0400" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In sum&#44; the results are consistent with a growing bulk of work which shows that contextual and metaphorical frames affect the way we construct opinions about social and political matters &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0095">Faucey &#38; Boroditsky&#44; 2010&#59; Faucey &#38; Matlock&#44; 2011&#59; Matlock&#44; 2012&#59; Thibodeau &#38; Boroditsky&#44; 2011</a>&#41;&#46; Also&#44; the data are consistent with previous work in medical anthropology that speaks of the importance of contextual and metaphorical choices for the construction of mental health discourse &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0040">Conrad&#44; 2007&#59; Corrigan &#38; Watson&#44; 2004&#59; Horwitz &#38; Wakefield&#44; 2007&#59; Mehta &#38; Farina&#44; 1997&#59; Phelan&#44; 2002</a>&#41;&#46; The way we talk about depression affects the way we think about the nature and causes of it&#46; Choosing the appropriate words to describe emotions might not be just a matter of style&#46; Rather&#44; linguistic framing might shape the way we conceptualize and construct our thoughts about mental health problems&#46;</p></span></span>"
    "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [
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        1 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec634693"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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          "titulo" => "Resumen"
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          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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        4 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "Linguistic frames shape conceptual structure"
          "secciones" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0010"
              "titulo" => "Corpus analysis"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        5 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "Results"
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Survey experiment&#58; linguistic framing of depression"
        ]
        7 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0025"
          "titulo" => "Method"
          "secciones" => array:3 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0045"
              "titulo" => "Ethics statement"
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            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0050"
              "titulo" => "Participants"
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            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0055"
              "titulo" => "Materials and procedure"
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        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0030"
          "titulo" => "Results"
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        9 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0035"
          "titulo" => "Discussion"
        ]
        10 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "References"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2014-10-29"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2015-05-13"
    "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec634693"
          "palabras" => array:6 [
            0 => "Linguistic framing"
            1 => "Corpus analysis"
            2 => "Depression"
            3 => "Medicalization"
            4 => "Spanish"
            5 => "Colombia"
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "es" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec634692"
          "palabras" => array:6 [
            0 => "Enmarque ling&#252;&#237;stico"
            1 => "An&#225;lisis corpus"
            2 => "Depresi&#243;n"
            3 => "Medicalizaci&#243;n"
            4 => "Espa&#241;ol"
            5 => "Colombia"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "tieneResumen" => true
    "resumen" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Descriptions of emotional disorders vary according to cultural and historical context&#46; Framing mental illness as a disease &#8211; as opposed to being a consequence of psychosocial factors &#8211; has been proposed as a strategy to fight stigma in recent years&#46; Here we combine two studies&#44; a corpus analysis and an experimental survey&#44; to explore this issue in the case of Spanish&#46; First&#44; we conducted a corpus analysis to investigate the patterns of linguistic framing of depression &#8211; including disease-like descriptions and metaphorical frames &#8211; using data from Latin American countries&#46; Two main patterns were identified&#58; &#40;1&#41; depression is frequently framed as a brain disease&#46; In line with medicalization trends observed worldwide&#44; this pattern has increased over time&#46; &#40;2&#41; The data showed that depression is also metaphorically construed as a place in space or as an opponent&#46; Second&#44; we investigated whether the instantiation of subtle linguistic cues influences people&#39;s perception of a description of a hypothetical case of depression&#46; A survey experiment conducted among Colombian students revealed that when depression was framed as a disease&#44; the participants&#8217; perception of the depressed person&#39;s responsibility was reduced&#46; Moreover&#44; disease-like descriptions and metaphorical frames influenced participants&#8217; initial interpretations of the role of social causal factors&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Las descripciones de los des&#243;rdenes emocionales var&#237;an de acuerdo a la cultura y los contextos hist&#243;ricos&#46; Recientemente&#44; se ha propuesto que enmarcar ling&#252;&#237;sticamente estos des&#243;rdenes como enfermedades &#8211; en contraposici&#243;n a consecuencias de factores psicosociales &#8211; podr&#237;a ser una estrategia para combatir estigmas&#46; En este trabajo combinamos un an&#225;lisis del corpus ling&#252;&#237;stico y un estudio experimental para explorar las caracter&#237;sticas y consecuencias del enmarque ling&#252;&#237;stico en espa&#241;ol para el caso de la depresi&#243;n&#46; En primer lugar investigamos la frecuencia de distintos patrones de enmarque &#8211; incluyendo enmarque de enfermedad y otros enmarques metaf&#243;ricos &#8211; usando datos provenientes de distintos pa&#237;ses de Latinoam&#233;rica&#46; Dos patrones emergen&#58; &#40;a&#41; La depresi&#243;n es frecuentemente enmarcada como una enfermedad cerebral y &#40;b&#41; La depresi&#243;n se describe metaf&#243;ricamente como un lugar en el espacio o un oponente&#46; En segundo lugar&#44; investigamos si el enmarque ling&#252;&#237;stico afecta la percepci&#243;n de un caso hipot&#233;tico de depresi&#243;n&#46; Una encuesta a estudiantes colombianos revel&#243; que cuando la depresi&#243;n se describe como una enfermedad&#44; los participantes tienden a percibir una menor responsabilidad de la persona afectada&#46; Por otra parte&#44; los resultados revelan que los distintos enmarques metaf&#243;ricos estudiados inciden en las interpretaciones de los participantes sobre el rol de las causas sociales&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
    ]
    "NotaPie" => array:2 [
      0 => array:3 [
        "etiqueta" => "1"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0015">Corpus linguistics refers to the study of language occurring in samples &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">corpora</span>&#41; of real world text&#46;</p>"
        "identificador" => "fn0005"
      ]
      1 => array:2 [
        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0010">This research was supported by Fondo FAPA&#44; Vicerrector&#237;a de investigaciones&#44; Universidad de los Andes&#46;</p>"
      ]
    ]
    "multimedia" => array:3 [
      0 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "fig0005"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg"
            "Alto" => 1483
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Distribution of linguistic framing patterns across four periods of time&#46; Dark gray bars correspond to DEPRESSION IS A PLACE IN SPACE metaphor&#44; dashed bars to DEPRESSION IS AN OPPONENT metaphor&#44; and light gray bars to the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">disease</span> frame&#46;</p>"
        ]
      ]
      1 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "tbl0005"
        "etiqueta" => "Table 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
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              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">1975&#8211;1989&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">1990&#8211;1994&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">1995&#8211;1999&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">2000&#8211;2004&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="5" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">BOUNDED SPACE frame</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Argentina&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">12&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Colombia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Chile&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">8&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Mexico&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">9&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Total</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">24&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">12&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">17&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">18&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="5" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="5" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">OPPONENT frame</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Argentina&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Colombia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Chile&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Mexico&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Total</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">8&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">11&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="5" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="5" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Disease frame</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Argentina&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">13&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">11&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">19&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Colombia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Chile&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Mexico&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Total</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">13&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">18&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">27&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Total number of hits</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">183&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">233&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">320&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">232&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
              "imagenFichero" => array:1 [
                0 => "xTab1016833.png"
              ]
            ]
          ]
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            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "tblfn0005"
              "etiqueta" => "a"
              "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Includes the number of hits that were not tagged as any framing of interest&#46;</p>"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Frequency distribution of the three main framing patterns across time&#46;</p>"
        ]
      ]
      2 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "tbl0010"
        "etiqueta" => "Table 2"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "tabla" => array:2 [
          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Note&#58;</span> Standard deviations &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">SDs</span>&#41; are displayed between brackets&#46; Abbreviations&#58; f&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>frame&#59; m&#46; metaphor&#46;</p><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Bold font indicates significant or marginally significant values&#46;</p>"
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
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                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td-with-role" title="table-head ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">Item&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " colspan="4" align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Mean ratings</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " colspan="3" align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Effects</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Disease f&#46;&#47;opponent m&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Disease f&#46;&#47;space m&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Neutral f&#46;&#47;opponent m&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Neutral f&#46;&#47;space m&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Disease frame<br><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span>-value&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Metaphor type<br><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span>-value&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Interaction&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Likelihood of eventual recovery&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;2 &#40;1&#46;3&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;6 &#40;1&#46;5&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;4 &#40;1&#46;6&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;7 &#40;1&#46;0&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Likelihood of short term recovery&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;2 &#40;1&#46;3&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;9 &#40;1&#46;2&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;0 &#40;1&#46;0&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;0 &#40;1&#46;0&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Juana is responsible for her problem&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;0 &#40;1&#46;4&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;5 &#40;1&#46;2&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;0 &#40;1&#46;6&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;7 &#40;1&#46;4&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#60;&#46;001</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#46;057</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Juana is a dangerous person&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&#46;5 &#40;1&#46;4&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&#46;8 &#40;1&#46;4&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&#46;4 &#40;1&#46;9&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&#46;4 &#40;1&#46;5&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;40&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;27&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;35&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">It&#39;s better to be away from Juana&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&#46;2 &#40;1&#46;8&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&#46;8 &#40;1&#46;8&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">2&#46;9 &#40;1&#46;8&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">1&#46;8 &#40;1&#46;0&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;32&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#46;03</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;26&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Causal role of social factors&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;4 &#40;1&#46;7&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;4 &#40;1&#46;6&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;8 &#40;1&#46;5&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;1 &#40;1&#46;3&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;18&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;69&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#60;&#46;001</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Causal role of lack of social support&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;5 &#40;1&#46;2&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;6 &#40;1&#46;7&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;6 &#40;1&#46;6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">5&#46;1 &#40;1&#46;7&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;47&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;55&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#46;03</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Juana has no control over her situation&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">4&#46;0 &#40;2&#46;0&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;9 &#40;1&#46;9&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;1 &#40;1&#46;8&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">3&#46;6 &#40;1&#46;6&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#46;09</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#62;&#46;5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#46;35&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
              ]
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                0 => "xTab1016832.png"
              ]
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        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Effects of linguistic frame conditions on individual question responses&#46;</p>"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "References"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "bibs0005"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:51 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0005"
              "etiqueta" => "American Psychiatric Association&#44; 2000"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "American Psychiatric Association"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Libro" => array:4 [
                        "edicion" => "4th ed&#46; text rev&#46;"
                        "fecha" => "2000"
                        "editorial" => "Author"
                        "editorialLocalizacion" => "Washington&#44; DC"
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib0010"
              "etiqueta" => "Aspinwall et al&#46;&#44; 2012"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:2 [
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "The double-edged sword&#58; Does biomechanism increase or decrease judges&#8217; sentencing of psychopaths&#63;"
                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:3 [
                            0 => "L&#46;G&#46; Aspinwall"
                            1 => "T&#46;R&#46; Brown"
                            2 => "J&#46; Tabery"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
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Article information
ISSN: 01200534
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