Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and its association with mentalizing abilities | Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental (English Edition)

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Gavilán, José E. García-Albea" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "José M." "apellidos" => "Gavilán" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "jm.gavilan@urv.cat" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "*" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "José E." 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The NIMH-Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140">1</a> has identified several separable domains of cognitive impairment in people affected by the illness. Those domains can be grouped under the umbrella of neurocognition (non-social) or social cognition. Since non-social and social cognition appear systematically impaired in schizophrenia they are considered core features of the illness as well as highly relevant to its functional outcome.The neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia is characterized by severe impairments in a wide range of cognitive processes, especially, the ones considered purely neuropsychological, such as attention, memory, and other executive functions (EFs). EFs were defined by Lezak<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145">2</a> as the mental abilities needed to perform an effective, creative and socially accepted behavior. Other authors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150">3</a> place EFs as encompassing a range of cognitive processes as anticipation, goal selection, planning, behavior's choice, self-regulation, self-control and cognitive feedback. The main purpose of these processes is to orchestrate the function of other systems in the performance of complex tasks, as comprehension, learning and reasoning. Very recently, Banich<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">4</a> has proposed a model that attempts to integrate the levels of neurobiology, psychology, and computation to provide a better comprehension of this set of abilities. The investigation of EFs in schizophrenia has been rather heterogeneous and many studies inform of impairments in multiple executive domains.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0160">5–7</a>From the field of social cognition, ToM is considered the natural capacity that allows us to decode or understand our own mental states or the ones of other people.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175">8</a> As a matter of fact, the neuropsychological studies of ToM have found this capacity consistently impaired in people suffering from schizophrenia.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0180">9–12</a> The co-occurrence between anomalies in basic cognitive functions and ToM abilities has been treated in an important number of studies. The systematic review carried out by Pickup<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200">13</a> revealed that in all cases patients were impaired in their executive and mentalizing domains, and two thirds of the studies showed correlations between some executive and some ToM task. This author points out that in the eight studies that used multivariate statistics, ToM performance continued predicting the schizophrenia group once EF was controlled for. The evidence examined leads Pickup to conclude that ToM impairment in schizophrenia reflects the dysfunction of a domain-specific cognitive system rather than a domain-general executive impairment.One of the problems in previous studies that somehow deal with the co-occurrence of executive and mentalizing impairments is not taking into account the multifaceted nature of the EF concept. To account for it, we aimed to analyze the relationship between schizophrenic's anomalies in EFs and ToM, by using a combination of tasks in each of these domains. On the one hand, we have chosen a set of reasonably easy tasks that are regularly administered to patients with schizophrenia but that at the same time are reliable estimators of the most important dimensions of EF, such as attention, working memory, reasoning, cognitive flexibility, and verbal fluency. On the other hand, we have selected a set of non-verbal and verbal ToM tasks in order to have an improved and more accurate estimation of mentalizing impairment in schizophrenia, all of them composed of critical items (false belief specific) and control items (non-false belief). With regard to participants, we have been particularly strict when matching patients to healthy controls in sex, age, educational level, language dominance, and premorbid IQ. We are interested in clarifying whether in our Spanish-speaking sample of patients the expected mentalizing impairments are a projection of the well-known executive anomalies or, as some studies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200">13</a> point out, they can be better conceptualized as independent of basic cognitive functioning.Materials and methodsParticipantsTwenty-two volunteers with schizophrenia were recruited (18 men and 4 women). They all were inpatients from the Rehabilitation Unit at the Hospital Psiquàtric Universitari Institut Pere Mata (Reus, Spain). All of the patients fulfilled the ICD-10<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205">14</a> criteria for schizophrenic disorder, and were taking antipsychotic agents at the time of the study. As a group, they show a moderate level of symptoms according to the PANSS,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210">15</a> though individually they were clinically stable and none of them was in remission in accordance with the above mentioned scale. All patients were Spanish-speakers, but Catalan language was considered as a variable since the community where the hospital is settled has Spanish and Catalan as common usage languages. Patients with a history of traumatic brain injury, acute exacerbation stage of the illness, and physical disability (visual or auditory) were excluded from the study. The investigation was approved by the St. Joan Hospital (Reus, Spain) ethics committee, and informed written consent was obtained from each patient and healthy comparison participant. The comparison group consisted of 22 healthy control participants (18 men, 4 women) carefully recruited from the general community once the socio-demographic characteristics of each patient were known. Control subjects were matched one by one to patients in sex, age, educational level, language dominance, and premorbid IQ. Exclusion criteria for controls included current or past psychiatric disease, history of central nervous system disease, history of substance dependence, or physical disability. That information was obtained from potential control participants through a previous questionnaire. Clinical characteristics for patients and demographic background for both the patients and controls groups are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia>Executive functioning assessmentWe administered a total of 10 tests in order to cover the neurocognitive dimensions of attention (2), working memory (2), reasoning (3), cognitive flexibility (1), and verbal fluency (2).AttentionThe Stroop test<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215">16</a> and the Toulouse-Piéron test.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220">17</a> The first assesses dimensions associated to basic components of EFs, such as selective attention, resistance to interference and inhibition of automatic responses, while the second evaluates sustained attention, concentration and resistance to monotony.The Spanish adaptation of the Stroop test consists of three sheets displaying 100 stimuli each. The first sheet contains color words that have to be read. The second has colored stimuli with no meaning that have to be named. The third sheet contains color words painted in colors that do not match with the meaning of the written word. The participants had 45s to perform each sheet, reading or naming colors. The test offers a direct measure of each sheet and a calculated measure of resistance to interference.The Toulouse-Piéron test is made of one only sheet displaying 1600 small squares (in 40 rows of 40 elements) that have attached a small dash at one of its sides or vertices. The participant is initially presented with 2 models (2 different squares with the dash in a specific position) and his task is for 10min, to identify by a tick those squares that have the dash in the same position of the models. The final score of each participant takes into account hits, errors and omissions.Working memoryDigit span forward and backward from the WAIS-III.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225">18</a> In this task the participant had to repeat verbally several numbers strings told by the experimenter in a direct or reverse order respectively. Finally, 2 raw measures are obtained, one for digit span forward and other for digit span backwards. Notice that although both scales are grouped under the dimension of working memory, the digit span forward task is more related with immediate memory, while the digit span backwards is the proper working memory task; that is the reason why we have kept both scores separated in the analyses.ReasoningSimilarities, block design and visual puzzles from the WAIS-III. In the first task the participant is requested about the likeness between two words that depict common objects or concepts, such as table-chair, poem-statue or work-game. The second task is non-verbal, and consists of colored blocks that have to be placed together to make designs. The third task is also non-verbal and consists of several figures that have to be built by assembling pieces of a puzzle. A direct measure from each task was obtained.Cognitive flexibilityTrail making test<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230">19</a> (TMT). This test has two parts, A and B. In the first part the participant is presented with 25 small circles containing numbers that are distributed in a sheet (from 1 to 25). The second part is made of 25 circles containing numbers and letters (from 1 to 13 and A to L) that also are distributed in a sheet. The task of the participant is first to connect by a line the numbers in their correct sequence (part A: 1-2-3…) and afterwards numbers that alternate with letters (part B: 1-A-2-B…). The task provides three different measures: time employed to complete part A, time needed for part B, and the difference of time between parts A and B (B–A). Notice that the specific cognitive flexibility measures are the part B and the difference between both (B–A). The part A assesses psychomotor speed and serves as baseline.Verbal fluencyControlled oral word association test.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235">20</a> This test measures phonologic and semantic fluency dimensions. In the first task the participant has to produce words starting with a particular letter (F, A and S) during 1min. In the second task the participants had to say in 1min, words fitting the category “animals”. Finally two measures were obtained, one for phonologic fluency (average of uttered words starting with F, A and S), and other for semantic fluency (number of uttered animals).ToM assessmentWe have combined verbal and non-verbal tasks in order to obtain a representative measure of the participants’ mentalizing abilities. The three task used have proved their reliability in several studies that evaluated clinical patients.ToM-1. Picture sequencing task (non-verbal)This task<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0240">21–23</a> includes four different types of story: false-belief (FB; character acts on the basis of a false belief); mechanical (MEC; causal interactions between objects); social scripts (SS; everyday social routines); and capture stories (CAP; which include a salient “decoy” cue intended to mislead participants). Each type of story contained four items. FB-stories test the ability to go beyond the objective facts so as to infer mental states; the remaining stories are used as control. An average measure of each type of story was obtained.ToM-2. Cartoon task (non-verbal)In this task, participants were asked to answer the question “Why is this funny?” for 20 black and white cartoons already used in other studies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255">24</a> Half of them required an understanding of characters’ mental states (FB set), while the others were based on absurd humor (non-FB set) and used as control for the first one. A direct measure of each type of cartoon was obtained.ToM-3. Story task (verbal)Nine short passages, each followed by a test question, were used in this task. The original task was composed by 16 short passages built to assess theory of mind in healthy participants by means of functional imaging study.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260">25</a> We decided to shorten the amount of passages in order to adapt the task to patients’ executive functions difficulties. There were three types of story passages: ToM stories (FB), non-ToM (non-FB) stories, and scrambled (SCR) stories. A direct measure of each type of story was obtained.Statistical analysisStatistical analyses were carried out by using IBM SPSS Statistics 20 for Windows. Initial group comparisons on demographic variables were conducted with t-test for continuous variables and χ2 tests for categorical variables. Before processing the data, the raw scores on the TMT (in seconds for A and B) have been inverted. The transformation allows expressing and interpreting all the scores in the same direction, that is, higher scores depict better performance than low scores. Afterwards, all individual raw scores were converted to relative percentage using as reference, on each task, the highest standard possible score or the best performance score in the cases that there was not standard top.In order to have a clear representation of patients’ performance in relation to controls in every assessed variable (following Bozikas et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160">5</a>) their scores were transformed. First, all the scores were converted on z-scores using the 44 participants (patients and controls) as a whole group. Afterwards we reduced the mean z-scores for each group in each measure by subtracting the mean z-score of the healthy group, from each individual z-score to obtain a new z-score mean. This procedure yielded a mean of zero for the control group on each measure, but lower than zero for the schizophrenic group. The procedure allows representing the mean performance of the healthy group as a baseline, and showing the deficiency of patients expressed in standard deviations.The procedure followed in applying statistical techniques was as follows. Firstly, performance differences between groups were examined by using t-tests. Secondly, the level of association of EFs with ToM was determined within each group of participants by using Pearson's correlation coefficient. Finally, we carried out a series of three discriminant function analyses: the first one was done by using the most relevant measures of each EF test; the second one was done by using all ToM measures, 3 corresponding to critical (FB items) and 6 to control items (non-FB); the third analysis included the measures (EF and ToM) that obtained significance in the two previous discriminant analyses. The main aim of every discriminant function analysis was elucidating the relative contribution of EF and ToM measures (on their own and together) when it comes to discriminating between patients and controls. As a secondary aim, we also were interested in clarifying which set of variables were better in classifying participants, that is, testing the goodness of fit of the statistical model in each analysis.ResultsAs it was shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>, both groups do not differ significantly in age (p=0.792), sex ratio (p=1), educational level (p=0.852), or premorbid IQ estimate (p=0.876).Executive functions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a> summarizes the mean scores of both groups expressed in relative percentage. The contrasts show that patients as a group had a lower performance than controls in almost all measures. The only measures that show no differences between groups are the calculated interference in the Stroop test (p=0.052), and the Digit span forward (p=0.296). For a better illustration of these results, the z-scores transformations depicted on <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a> present the mean performance of the control group as baseline, and show the deficiency of patients expressed in standard deviations. Measures that are derived from a mathematical calculation based on other measures have not been included in the graph because the information they provide is redundant (i.e., the calculated interference in the Stroop test, the total sum in the Digit span test, or the subtraction B–A in the TMT).<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a> shows that the worse EF performance of patients in relation to their controls is situated in the domain of sustained attention (Toulouse-Piéron test) and cognitive flexibility (TMT).Theory of mind<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0015">Table 3</a> summarizes the relative percentage mean scores of both groups in the three ToM tasks. In all ToM measures (3 FB-critical and 6 non-FB control conditions) patients show significant statistical differences in respect to controls except for the SCR items mean score in ToM-3. Patients performed worse than controls in general (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>), and more importantly, in each task (ToM-1, 2 & 3) patients clearly presented their higher difficulty in the FB-critical condition. At this point our interest is to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0015"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia>Correlations within the patient and control groups<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0020">Table 4</a> shows the correlations within each group between measures of EF and ToM. For the latter the only measures considered are the ones that specifically assess mentalizing abilities in each task, that is, the false belief critical conditions. It can be seen that within the group of patients the relationship between both capacities almost does not appear, while the control group shows associations between ToM abilities and each EF evaluated dimension: attention, working memory, reasoning, cognitive flexibility, and phonologic fluency. Given the absence of significant correlations within the group of patients, we repeated the analyses in this group but controlling for medication dose and symptomatology through partial correlation techniques. When controlling for medication dose, there were no changes in the number of significant correlations; and when controlling for symptomatology (using the 3 PANSS scales together) there were no changes either except for the correlation between FB-ToM-2 and visual puzzles (r=0.491, p=0.033) that reached significance.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0020"></elsevierMultimedia>Discriminant function analysesDiscriminant 1 (EFs)The independent variables used as predictors of group membership in the first analysis include 13 EF measures. They are all that appear in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a> with the exception of the three combined measures mentioned in the “Executive functions” section.Just one discriminant function was obtained given that the criterion variable “group” was dichotomous. Function 1 was statistically significant (χ2=44.146, df=13, p<0.001), which indicates that it makes a significant contribution to prediction of group affiliation. It accounts for 84.4% of between group variance and separates well patients (M=−1.535) from controls (M=1.535). In view that the assumption of homoscedasticity was violated (Box’ M=249.190, df1=91, df2=5528.575, p<0.001), we used the option of “separate-groups” covariance in classification. The usefulness of the equation extracted in discriminating correctly between patients and controls was confirmed by the classification procedure. Results show that 88.6% of subjects were correctly classified in their membership group, exceeding the value for classification based on chance (50%). Three patients were misclassified as control subjects and two controls as patients.In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0025">Table 5</a>(a) the loadings or structure coefficients for function 1 are reported. From the obtained weights, it can be seen that in relation to EFs performance, the best predictors discriminating patients from controls are by this order: (a) Toulouse-Piéron test, (b) TMT-B, (c) TMT-A, (d) phonological fluency task, (e) Stroop-C task, (f) block design task, (g) semantic fluency task, and (h) Stroop-WC task.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0025"></elsevierMultimedia>Discriminant 2 (ToM)The variables used as predictors in the second analysis include the 9 ToM measures used to assess mentalizing abilities. Just one discriminant function was obtained. Function 1 was statistically significant (χ2=67.483, df=9, p<0.001) and in this case accounts for 91.4% of between group variance; separating perfectly patients (M=−2.195) from controls (M=2.195). Homoscedasticity was violated (Box’ M=119.885, df1=45, df2=5795.061, p<0.001), so we used again the option of “separate-groups” covariance in classification. The usefulness of the extracted equation in discriminating correctly between groups was confirmed by the classification procedure. Results show that in this case, all subjects (100%) were correctly classified in their membership group, far exceeding a based on chance classification value. In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0025">Table 5</a>(b), the structure coefficients for function 1 show that the best predictors discriminating patients from controls are by this order: (a) FB-ToM-2, (b) FB-ToM-1, (c) FB-ToM-3, and (d) NFB-ToM-3.Discriminant 3 (EFs and ToM)The independent variables employed as predictors in the last analysis of the series are the 8 EF measures that reported significance in the first discriminant analysis, and the 4 ToM measures significant in the second. Only one discriminant function was obtained and was statistically significant (χ2=62.556, df=12, p<0.001). In this case it accounts for 90.8% of between group variance and perfectly separates patients (M=−2.114) from controls (M=2.114). Homoscedasticity was once more violated (Box’ M=260.069, df1=78, df2=5570.418, p<0.001), so we used the option of “separate-groups” covariance in classification. The efficacy of the extracted equation in discriminating correctly between groups was confirmed by the classification procedure. Results show that for a second time, all subjects (100%) were correctly classified in their membership group. In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0025">Table 5</a>(c), the structure coefficients for function 1 show that in this last analysis, when it comes to separating patients from controls, the best predictors are by this order: (a) Toulouse-Piéron test, (b) FB-ToM-2, (c) FB-ToM-1, (d) TMT-B, (e) TMT-A, (f) FB-ToM-3, (g) phonological fluency task, and (h) NFB-ToM-3.DiscussionThe group of patients evaluated in this study shows impairments in both their executive functions and their mentalizing abilities. Deficits in memory, attention, and the assessed executive functions in the group of patients are in accordance with previous studies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0160">5,7</a> Similarly, impairments in ToM are in line with those found in earlier investigations with comparable tasks.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0180">9–12</a> When looking at the EFs performance profile, we have found that the more deteriorated dimensions in our group of patients lie in the areas of sustained attention and cognitive flexibility. In both tests patients performed close to one-and-a-half standard deviations below the score of the healthy group. In relation with mentalizing abilities we have found that in the three ToM tasks used, patients decisively show greater difficulty in the false belief critical conditions than in the neutral ones. The most informative of the ToM results is that in each of the three tasks, patients show their larger differences compared to controls in the critical FB conditions, namely, the items that specifically detect mentalizing abilities. At the same time, it is important to notice that the difference between patients and controls is much bigger in ToM than in EFs, as is well illustrated by comparing <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a> with <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>.In answer to our main aim, we conducted a correlational analysis within each group of participants in order to clarify the type of relationship between executive and mentalizing abilities. On the one hand, results show almost an absence of correlation between both types of abilities within the patients group. On the other hand, a different pattern appeared within the healthy group, where the association between executive and mentalizing abilities is notorious. In this group, each of the five dimensions evaluated correlated significantly with one or more of the ToM-FB tasks. We interpret that when the executive functions and mentilizing abilities are in use by minds that work within a cognitive standard, as is the case of the healthy group, they show a well-coordinated functioning and they appear consistently interconnected. However, in the case of schizophrenia, where patients suffer a remarkable cognitive breakdown, the deficient executive and mentalizing skills show a less connected functioning. Furthermore, the lack of correlation within the group of patients cannot be explained by the dose of medication prescribed, neither by their present symptomatology. Taking into account the limitations of the sample, we wondered if correlation results would remain stable in the group of patients when using a larger number of participants. But in any case, the relationships between ToM and EFs found in the control group tell us that the lack of significant correlations in patients should be attributed to something different than the number of participants.The results of the discriminant function analyses show that EF and ToM performance explain a high portion of the variance in the three cases, when the tasks of each dimension were introduced alone or together. At the same time, the three analyses are highly accurate when classifying participants. It can be seen that the one that used ToM tasks as predictors explains more variance than the other two, being better than the first one (EFs) and as good as the third one (joined measures) when classifying participants. That is, adding the EFs measures to the ToM ones does not improve the predictions of the ToM performance alone.According to the structure matrix loadings on the third analysis, the best predictors of group membership are sustained attention, the two non-verbal mentalizing tasks, cognitive flexibility and the verbal ToM task. This result suggests that in the contribution to the separation of groups there is no clear predominance of one dimension over the other, although ToM tasks are better than the EF ones to predict and assign participants to groups.As for the limitations of the study, we consider that the relatively small size of the sample may influence the power of the correlation and discriminant function analysis techniques employed. The fact that most of our participants were long-term ill inpatients could have had some effects on cognitive functioning, but this is an inherent limitation of all investigations with inpatients. Nowadays many neurocognitive researches in schizophrenia involve outpatients so that potential limitation would not be in force. On the other hand, we reduced the number of items of the original verbal Story Task<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265">26</a> used to assess ToM in order to reduce the verbal memory load in patients and that could have restricted the precision of ToM evaluation. The use of a more complete set of tasks (second order and others for ToM and more diverse ones for EFs) would be desirable for future research in order to improve the accuracy of executive and mentalizing assessment.Finally, according to our evidence and in line with the results obtained in previous studies,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200">13</a> we can conclude that EFs and ToM abilities are genuinely impaired in people suffering schizophrenia and markedly compromise different aspects of patients’ behavior. Although both types of deficits appear together in the illness, our correlational data suggest that they might belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains. The healthy group has no problem to use interactively their intact executive and mentalizing abilities, but when these get impaired as happens in schizophrenia, they appear to be selectively damaged as the lack of interaction in their functioning demonstrates. This conclusion should have its projection when designing cognitive rehabilitation programs since EFs and ToM deficiencies are both involved<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270">27</a> in the functional outcome of schizophrenia.Ethical disclosuresProtection of human and animal subjectsThe authors declare that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this investigation.Confidentiality of dataThe authors declare that they have followed the protocols of their work center on the publication of patient data and that all the patients included in the study have received sufficient information and have given their informed consent in writing to participate in that study.Right to privacy and informed consentThe authors have obtained the informed consent of the patients and/or subjects mentioned in the article. The author for correspondence is in possession of this document.FundingThis work was partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education (research project PSI 2012-37623) and by a grant from the Generalitat de Catalunya (2009-SGR-401).Conflict of interestThe authors declare no conflict of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:12 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres548433" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Materials and methods" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec566249" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres548432" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Introducción" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Materiales y métodos" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec566248" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Materials and methods" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Participants" ] 1 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Executive functioning assessment" "secciones" => array:5 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Attention" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Working memory" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Reasoning" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Cognitive flexibility" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Verbal fluency" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "ToM assessment" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "ToM-1. Picture sequencing task (non-verbal)" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "ToM-2. Cartoon task (non-verbal)" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "ToM-3. Story task (verbal)" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0070" "titulo" => "Statistical analysis" ] ] ] 6 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0075" "titulo" => "Results" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0080" "titulo" => "Executive functions" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0085" "titulo" => "Theory of mind" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0090" "titulo" => "Correlations within the patient and control groups" ] 3 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0095" "titulo" => "Discriminant function analyses" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0100" "titulo" => "Discriminant 1 (EFs)" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0105" "titulo" => "Discriminant 2 (ToM)" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0110" "titulo" => "Discriminant 3 (EFs and ToM)" ] ] ] ] ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0115" "titulo" => "Discussion" ] 8 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0125" "titulo" => "Ethical disclosures" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0130" "titulo" => "Protection of human and animal subjects" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0135" "titulo" => "Confidentiality of data" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0140" "titulo" => "Right to privacy and informed consent" ] ] ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0120" "titulo" => "Funding" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0145" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 11 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2013-10-07" "fechaAceptado" => "2014-01-09" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec566249" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Schizophrenia" 1 => "Executive function" 2 => "Theory of mind" 3 => "Neuropsychological tests" 4 => "Discriminant analysis" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec566248" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Esquizofrenia" 1 => "Función ejecutiva" 2 => "Teoría de la mente" 3 => "Pruebas neuropsicológicas" 4 => "Análisis discriminante" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "IntroductionPatients with schizophrenia have been found impaired in important aspects of their basic and social cognition. Our aim in this study is to explore the relationship between executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) deficiencies in patients that suffer the illness. Materials and methodsTwenty-two Spanish-speaking inpatients and 22 healthy controls matched in age, sex, education, language dominance, and premorbid IQ were assessed in EF and ToM abilities. The former were assessed using 10 tasks that covered 5 cognitive dimensions and the latter using 3 different tasks. Correlation analyses were used to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities. A series of discriminant function analyses were carried out to examine the relative contribution of each executive and mentalizing task to discriminate between patients and controls. ResultsPatients showed impairments in both, executive and ToM abilities. The correlation analyses showed a virtual absence of association between EF and ToM abilities within the group of patients, and an almost opposite pattern within the healthy group. ToM performance was more accurate than executive performance to discriminate patients from controls. ConclusionsAlthough EFs and ToM deficits come into view together in schizophrenia, they appear to belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains." "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Materials and methods" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] "es" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "IntroducciónEn la esquizofrenia se han encontrado alteraciones en aspectos importantes de la cognición básica y social. El objetivo de este estudio es explorar la relación entre deficiencias en función ejecutiva (FE) y en teoría de la mente (TM) en pacientes que sufren esta enfermedad. Materiales y métodosVeintidós pacientes de habla hispana y 22 controles emparejados a los primeros en edad, sexo, educación, lengua dominante y CI premórbido fueron evaluados en FE y capacidad de TM. Para evaluar las FEs se utilizaron 10 tareas que abarcan 5 dimensiones cognitivas, mientras que para evaluar la TM se han utilizado 3 tareas distintas. Para explorar el grado de asociación entre habilidades ejecutivas y mentalistas se han empleado técnicas de análisis correlacional. A través del análisis discriminante se ha examinado la contribución relativa de cada tarea ejecutiva y mentalista a la hora de discriminar entre pacientes y controles. ResultadosLos pacientes presentaron alteraciones tanto en su capacidad ejecutiva como mentalista. El análisis de correlación mostró una ausencia de asociación entre FEs y habilidades de TM dentro del grupo de pacientes, mientras que el patrón fue más bien opuesto en el grupo control. El rendimiento en TM fue más preciso que el rendimiento ejecutivo para predecir a qué grupo pertenecían los participantes. ConclusionesAunque los déficits en FE y en TM aparecen conjuntamente en la esquizofrenia, ambos pertenecen a dominios cognitivos distintos y relativamente independientes." "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Introducción" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Materiales y métodos" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "Please cite this article as: Gavilán JM, García-Albea JE. La función ejecutiva en la esquizofrenia y su asociación con las habilidades cognitivas sociales (mentalistas). Rev Psiquiatr Salud Ment (Barc.). 2015;8:119–129." ] ] "multimedia" => array:7 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1769 "Ancho" => 2211 "Tamanyo" => 149536 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Profile of performance in every EF measure: performance of patients is expressed in z-scores and based on the means and SDs of the healthy control subjects." ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1858 "Ancho" => 2376 "Tamanyo" => 157661 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Profile of performance in each ToM task: performance of patients is expressed in z-scores and based on the means and SDs of the healthy control subjects." ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "IQ, intellectual quotient; m, men; n.s., non significant; PANSS, Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale; w, women." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Schizophrenia \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Controls \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">χ2/t-values \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Sex ratio (m:w) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">18:4 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">18:4 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">0.000 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Age (years) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">42.82±10.84 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">41.95±10.78 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">0.265 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Educational level (years) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">10.18±2.38 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">10.05±2.44 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">0.188 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Premorbid IQ estimate \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">106.40±14.05 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">107.10±15.64 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−0.157 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Age onset illness (years) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">23.09±7.98 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Duration of illness (years) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">19.91±10.76 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Antipsychotic agents (mean chlorpromazine mg/day) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">833.46±492.49 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PANSS+ \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">16.09±4.72 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PANSS− \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">19.00±4.74 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PANSS general \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">34.41±6.44 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PANSS sum \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">69.50±12.89 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab885871.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Clinical and demographic details of participants (means±standard deviations)." ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:3 [ "leyenda" => "c, colors; TMT, Trail Making Test; w, words." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Schizophrenia \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Controls \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">t-values \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Attention</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (words) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">72.55±16.81 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">82.92±14.08 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−2.21<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (colors) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">65.51±13.57 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">82.38±10.89 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−4.54<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (w+c) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">53.52±17.05 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">72.41±16.98 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−3.68<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (interference) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">32.41±11.56 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">42.38±20.32 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−2.00 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Toulouse-Piéron \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">29.47±16.48 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">68.59±14.30 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−8.40<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Working memory</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span (forward) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">52.27±10.30 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">55.68±11.06 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−1.05 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span (backward) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">33.11±10.46 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">44.15±13.16 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−3.07<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span (total) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">43.33±8.23 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">50.30±10.97 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−2.38<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Reasoning</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Similarities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">46.28±13.91 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">58.54±11.47 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−3.19<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Block design \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">46.12±13.82 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">68.84±19.67 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−4.43<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Visual puzzles \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">44.75±12.39 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">57.42±17.71 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−2.74<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Cognitive flexibility</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">84.22±7.75 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">94.77±1.99 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−6.18<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-B \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">44.39±30.54 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">87.87±7.42 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−6.48<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT B–A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">61.18±24.09 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">91.01±6.41 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−5.61<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Verbal fluency</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Phonologic fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">44.83±15.49 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">69.52±15.08 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−5.35<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Semantic fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">50.91±14.62 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">66.51±11.89 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−3.88 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab885869.png" ] ] ] "notaPie" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0005" "etiqueta" => "*" "nota" => "p<0.05." ] 1 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0010" "etiqueta" => "**" "nota" => "p<0.01." ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Mean performance of patients and controls on EFs tests expressed in relative % (means±standard deviations)." ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0015" "etiqueta" => "Table 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:3 [ "leyenda" => "CAP, capture stories; FB, false-belief; MEC, mechanical; n.s., non significant; SCR, scrambled stories; SS, everyday social routines." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Schizophrenia \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Controls \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">t-values \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 (SS) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">93.37±9.24 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">98.86±3.67 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−2.590<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0015">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 (MEC) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">79.74±22.72 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">93.94±9.59 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−2.701<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0015">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 (CAP) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">55.68±17.56 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">74.05±16.51 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−3.574<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">42.42±20.19 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">84.85±17.13 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−7.514<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-2 (non-FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">81.67±14.71 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">96.67±5.14 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−4.512<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-2 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">71.21±15.24 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">97.27±3.02 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−7.866<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-3 (SCR) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">60.61±19.61 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">62.12±21.32 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−0.245 n.s. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-3 (non-FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">50.76±27.92 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">85.61±18.75 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−4.859<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">ToM-3 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">38.64±33.48 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">87.88±17.95 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">−6.079<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab885870.png" ] ] ] "notaPie" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0015" "etiqueta" => "*" "nota" => "p<0.05." ] 1 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0020" "etiqueta" => "**" "nota" => "p<0.01." ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Mean performance of patients and controls on ToM tasks expressed in relative % (means±standard deviations)." ] ] 5 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0020" "etiqueta" => "Table 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:3 [ "leyenda" => "FB: false belief condition." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " colspan="3" align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Schizophrenia</th><th class="td" title="table-head " colspan="3" align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Control</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">ToM-1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">ToM-2 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">ToM-3 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">ToM-1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">ToM-2 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col">ToM-3 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top">Attention</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (words) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.062 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.292 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.285 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.484<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.191 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.392 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (colors) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.114 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.115 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.312 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.575<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.255 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.358 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (w+c) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.005 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.111 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.248 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.180 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.378 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.269 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop (interference) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.153 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.067 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.069 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.134 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.379 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.060 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Toulouse-Piéron \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.182 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.068 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.216 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.034 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.002 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.607<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top">Working memory</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span (forward) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.236 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.126 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.094 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.008 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.515<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.338 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span (backward) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.279 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.248 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.284 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.041 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.435<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.310 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span (total) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.008 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.063 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.106 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.027 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.520<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.355 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top">Reasoning</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Similarities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.214 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.521<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.212 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.164 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.593<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.340 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Block design \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.187 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.514<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.266 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.210 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.670<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.480<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Visual puzzles \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.265 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.375 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.181 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.079 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.465<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.057 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top">Cognitive flexibility</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.172 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.541<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.335 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.093 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.235 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.096 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-B \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.045 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.410 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.283 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.210 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.205 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.502<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT B-A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.006 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.305 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.220 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.195 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.147 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.505<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top">Verbal fluency</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Phonologic fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.265 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.220 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.311 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.402 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.148 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.575<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030">**</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Semantic fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.313 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.022 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.026 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.109 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">−0.071 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.128 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab885867.png" ] ] ] "notaPie" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0025" "etiqueta" => "*" "nota" => "p<.05." ] 1 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0030" "etiqueta" => "**" "nota" => "p<.01." ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Correlations for ToM critical FB-conditions and EF tasks within the groups of patients and controls." ] ] 6 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0025" "etiqueta" => "Table 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:3 [ "leyenda" => "CAP, capture stories; EF, executive function; FB, false-belief; MEC, mechanical; SCR, scrambled stories; TMT, Trail Making Test; ToM, theory of mind." "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">(a) EF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Function 1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">(b) ToM \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Function 1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">(c) EF plus ToM \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Function 1 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Toulouse-P. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.826<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-2 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.540<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Toulouse-P. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.599<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-B \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.637<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.516<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-2 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.561<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.607<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.418<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.536<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PH. fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.526<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 (NFB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.334<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-B \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.463<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop-C \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.447<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-2 (NFB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.310 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TMT-A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.441<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Block design \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.435<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 (CAP) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.246 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 (FB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.433<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">SEM. fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.382<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 (MEC) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.186 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">PH. fluency \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.382<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop-WC \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.362<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 (SS) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.178 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 (NFB) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.346<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Similarities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.313 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 (SCR) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.017 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop-C \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.324 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span-B \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.302 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Block design \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.316 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Puzzles \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.270 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Semantic FL. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.277 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop-W \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.218 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Stroop-WC \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.262 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Digit span-F \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="char" valign="top">0.104 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="" valign="top"> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab885868.png" ] ] ] "notaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0035" "etiqueta" => "*" "nota" => "Loadings of variables higher than 0.33." ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Structure matrix corresponding to the three discriminant analysis: (a) EF, (b) ToM and (c) combined EF and ToM variables." ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:27 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0140" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Longitudinal 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Executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and its association with mentalizing abilities

La función ejecutiva en la esquizofrenia y su asociación con las habilidades cognitivas sociales (mentalistas)

José M. Gavilán

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jm.gavilan@urv.cat

Corresponding author.

, José E. García-Albea

Centre de Recerca en Avaluació i Mesura de la Conducta, Departament de Psicologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain

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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Profile of performance in each ToM task&#58; performance of patients is expressed in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-scores and based on the means and SDs of the healthy control subjects&#46;</p>"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Schizophrenia is conceptualized as a neurobiological disorder that entails a severe and persistent functional impairment&#46; The NIMH-Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia &#40;MATRICS&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> has identified several separable domains of cognitive impairment in people affected by the illness&#46; Those domains can be grouped under the umbrella of neurocognition &#40;non-social&#41; or social cognition&#46; Since non-social and social cognition appear systematically impaired in schizophrenia they are considered core features of the illness as well as highly relevant to its functional outcome&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia is characterized by severe impairments in a wide range of cognitive processes&#44; especially&#44; the ones considered purely neuropsychological&#44; such as attention&#44; memory&#44; and other executive functions &#40;EFs&#41;&#46; EFs were defined by Lezak<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> as the mental abilities needed to perform an effective&#44; creative and socially accepted behavior&#46; Other authors<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> place EFs as encompassing a range of cognitive processes as anticipation&#44; goal selection&#44; planning&#44; behavior&#39;s choice&#44; self-regulation&#44; self-control and cognitive feedback&#46; The main purpose of these processes is to orchestrate the function of other systems in the performance of complex tasks&#44; as comprehension&#44; learning and reasoning&#46; Very recently&#44; Banich<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> has proposed a model that attempts to integrate the levels of neurobiology&#44; psychology&#44; and computation to provide a better comprehension of this set of abilities&#46; The investigation of EFs in schizophrenia has been rather heterogeneous and many studies inform of impairments in multiple executive domains&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5&#8211;7</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From the field of social cognition&#44; ToM is considered the natural capacity that allows us to decode or understand our own mental states or the ones of other people&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> As a matter of fact&#44; the neuropsychological studies of ToM have found this capacity consistently impaired in people suffering from schizophrenia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9&#8211;12</span></a> The co-occurrence between anomalies in basic cognitive functions and ToM abilities has been treated in an important number of studies&#46; The systematic review carried out by Pickup<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> revealed that in all cases patients were impaired in their executive and mentalizing domains&#44; and two thirds of the studies showed correlations between some executive and some ToM task&#46; This author points out that in the eight studies that used multivariate statistics&#44; ToM performance continued predicting the schizophrenia group once EF was controlled for&#46; The evidence examined leads Pickup to conclude that ToM impairment in schizophrenia reflects the dysfunction of a domain-specific cognitive system rather than a domain-general executive impairment&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One of the problems in previous studies that somehow deal with the co-occurrence of executive and mentalizing impairments is not taking into account the multifaceted nature of the EF concept&#46; To account for it&#44; we aimed to analyze the relationship between schizophrenic&#39;s anomalies in EFs and ToM&#44; by using a combination of tasks in each of these domains&#46; On the one hand&#44; we have chosen a set of reasonably easy tasks that are regularly administered to patients with schizophrenia but that at the same time are reliable estimators of the most important dimensions of EF&#44; such as attention&#44; working memory&#44; reasoning&#44; cognitive flexibility&#44; and verbal fluency&#46; On the other hand&#44; we have selected a set of non-verbal and verbal ToM tasks in order to have an improved and more accurate estimation of mentalizing impairment in schizophrenia&#44; all of them composed of critical items &#40;false belief specific&#41; and control items &#40;non-false belief&#41;&#46; With regard to participants&#44; we have been particularly strict when matching patients to healthy controls in sex&#44; age&#44; educational level&#44; language dominance&#44; and premorbid IQ&#46; We are interested in clarifying whether in our Spanish-speaking sample of patients the expected mentalizing impairments are a projection of the well-known executive anomalies or&#44; as some studies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> point out&#44; they can be better conceptualized as independent of basic cognitive functioning&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Materials and methods</span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Participants</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Twenty-two volunteers with schizophrenia were recruited &#40;18 men and 4 women&#41;&#46; They all were inpatients from the Rehabilitation Unit at the Hospital Psiqu&#224;tric Universitari Institut Pere Mata &#40;Reus&#44; Spain&#41;&#46; All of the patients fulfilled the ICD-10<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> criteria for schizophrenic disorder&#44; and were taking antipsychotic agents at the time of the study&#46; As a group&#44; they show a moderate level of symptoms according to the PANSS&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> though individually they were clinically stable and none of them was in remission in accordance with the above mentioned scale&#46; All patients were Spanish-speakers&#44; but Catalan language was considered as a variable since the community where the hospital is settled has Spanish and Catalan as common usage languages&#46; Patients with a history of traumatic brain injury&#44; acute exacerbation stage of the illness&#44; and physical disability &#40;visual or auditory&#41; were excluded from the study&#46; The investigation was approved by the St&#46; Joan Hospital &#40;Reus&#44; Spain&#41; ethics committee&#44; and informed written consent was obtained from each patient and healthy comparison participant&#46; The comparison group consisted of 22 healthy control participants &#40;18 men&#44; 4 women&#41; carefully recruited from the general community once the socio-demographic characteristics of each patient were known&#46; Control subjects were matched one by one to patients in sex&#44; age&#44; educational level&#44; language dominance&#44; and premorbid IQ&#46; Exclusion criteria for controls included current or past psychiatric disease&#44; history of central nervous system disease&#44; history of substance dependence&#44; or physical disability&#46; That information was obtained from potential control participants through a previous questionnaire&#46; Clinical characteristics for patients and demographic background for both the patients and controls groups are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Executive functioning assessment</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We administered a total of 10 tests in order to cover the neurocognitive dimensions of attention &#40;2&#41;&#44; working memory &#40;2&#41;&#44; reasoning &#40;3&#41;&#44; cognitive flexibility &#40;1&#41;&#44; and verbal fluency &#40;2&#41;&#46;</p><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Attention</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Stroop test<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> and the Toulouse-Pi&#233;ron test&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> The first assesses dimensions associated to basic components of EFs&#44; such as selective attention&#44; resistance to interference and inhibition of automatic responses&#44; while the second evaluates sustained attention&#44; concentration and resistance to monotony&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Spanish adaptation of the Stroop test consists of three sheets displaying 100 stimuli each&#46; The first sheet contains color words that have to be read&#46; The second has colored stimuli with no meaning that have to be named&#46; The third sheet contains color words painted in colors that do not match with the meaning of the written word&#46; The participants had 45<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>s to perform each sheet&#44; reading or naming colors&#46; The test offers a direct measure of each sheet and a calculated measure of resistance to interference&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Toulouse-Pi&#233;ron test is made of one only sheet displaying 1600 small squares &#40;in 40 rows of 40 elements&#41; that have attached a small dash at one of its sides or vertices&#46; The participant is initially presented with 2 models &#40;2 different squares with the dash in a specific position&#41; and his task is for 10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#44; to identify by a tick those squares that have the dash in the same position of the models&#46; The final score of each participant takes into account hits&#44; errors and omissions&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Working memory</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Digit span forward and backward from the WAIS-III&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> In this task the participant had to repeat verbally several numbers strings told by the experimenter in a direct or reverse order respectively&#46; Finally&#44; 2 raw measures are obtained&#44; one for digit span forward and other for digit span backwards&#46; Notice that although both scales are grouped under the dimension of working memory&#44; the digit span forward task is more related with immediate memory&#44; while the digit span backwards is the proper working memory task&#59; that is the reason why we have kept both scores separated in the analyses&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Reasoning</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similarities&#44; block design and visual puzzles from the WAIS-III&#46; In the first task the participant is requested about the likeness between two words that depict common objects or concepts&#44; such as table-chair&#44; poem-statue or work-game&#46; The second task is non-verbal&#44; and consists of colored blocks that have to be placed together to make designs&#46; The third task is also non-verbal and consists of several figures that have to be built by assembling pieces of a puzzle&#46; A direct measure from each task was obtained&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Cognitive flexibility</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Trail making test<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> &#40;TMT&#41;&#46; This test has two parts&#44; A and B&#46; In the first part the participant is presented with 25 small circles containing numbers that are distributed in a sheet &#40;from 1 to 25&#41;&#46; The second part is made of 25 circles containing numbers and letters &#40;from 1 to 13 and A to L&#41; that also are distributed in a sheet&#46; The task of the participant is first to connect by a line the numbers in their correct sequence &#40;part A&#58; 1-2-3&#8230;&#41; and afterwards numbers that alternate with letters &#40;part B&#58; 1-A-2-B&#8230;&#41;&#46; The task provides three different measures&#58; time employed to complete part A&#44; time needed for part B&#44; and the difference of time between parts A and B &#40;B&#8211;A&#41;&#46; Notice that the specific cognitive flexibility measures are the part B and the difference between both &#40;B&#8211;A&#41;&#46; The part A assesses psychomotor speed and serves as baseline&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Verbal fluency</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Controlled oral word association test&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> This test measures phonologic and semantic fluency dimensions&#46; In the first task the participant has to produce words starting with a particular letter &#40;F&#44; A and S&#41; during 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#46; In the second task the participants had to say in 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#44; words fitting the category &#8220;animals&#8221;&#46; Finally two measures were obtained&#44; one for phonologic fluency &#40;average of uttered words starting with F&#44; A and S&#41;&#44; and other for semantic fluency &#40;number of uttered animals&#41;&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">ToM assessment</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We have combined verbal and non-verbal tasks in order to obtain a representative measure of the participants&#8217; mentalizing abilities&#46; The three task used have proved their reliability in several studies that evaluated clinical patients&#46;</p><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">ToM-1&#46; Picture sequencing task &#40;non-verbal&#41;</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This task<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21&#8211;23</span></a> includes four different types of story&#58; false-belief &#40;FB&#59; character acts on the basis of a false belief&#41;&#59; mechanical &#40;MEC&#59; causal interactions between objects&#41;&#59; social scripts &#40;SS&#59; everyday social routines&#41;&#59; and capture stories &#40;CAP&#59; which include a salient &#8220;decoy&#8221; cue intended to mislead participants&#41;&#46; Each type of story contained four items&#46; FB-stories test the ability to go beyond the objective facts so as to infer mental states&#59; the remaining stories are used as control&#46; An average measure of each type of story was obtained&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">ToM-2&#46; Cartoon task &#40;non-verbal&#41;</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this task&#44; participants were asked to answer the question &#8220;Why is this funny&#63;&#8221; for 20 black and white cartoons already used in other studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> Half of them required an understanding of characters&#8217; mental states &#40;FB set&#41;&#44; while the others were based on absurd humor &#40;non-FB set&#41; and used as control for the first one&#46; A direct measure of each type of cartoon was obtained&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">ToM-3&#46; Story task &#40;verbal&#41;</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nine short passages&#44; each followed by a test question&#44; were used in this task&#46; The original task was composed by 16 short passages built to assess theory of mind in healthy participants by means of functional imaging study&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> We decided to shorten the amount of passages in order to adapt the task to patients&#8217; executive functions difficulties&#46; There were three types of story passages&#58; ToM stories &#40;FB&#41;&#44; non-ToM &#40;non-FB&#41; stories&#44; and scrambled &#40;SCR&#41; stories&#46; A direct measure of each type of story was obtained&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Statistical analysis</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Statistical analyses were carried out by using IBM SPSS Statistics 20 for Windows&#46; Initial group comparisons on demographic variables were conducted with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-test for continuous variables and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> tests for categorical variables&#46; Before processing the data&#44; the raw scores on the TMT &#40;in seconds for A and B&#41; have been inverted&#46; The transformation allows expressing and interpreting all the scores in the same direction&#44; that is&#44; higher scores depict better performance than low scores&#46; Afterwards&#44; all individual raw scores were converted to relative percentage using as reference&#44; on each task&#44; the highest standard possible score or the best performance score in the cases that there was not standard top&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In order to have a clear representation of patients&#8217; performance in relation to controls in every assessed variable &#40;following Bozikas et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a>&#41; their scores were transformed&#46; First&#44; all the scores were converted on <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-scores using the 44 participants &#40;patients and controls&#41; as a whole group&#46; Afterwards we reduced the mean <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-scores for each group in each measure by subtracting the mean <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-score of the healthy group&#44; from each individual <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-score to obtain a new <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-score mean&#46; This procedure yielded a mean of zero for the control group on each measure&#44; but lower than zero for the schizophrenic group&#46; The procedure allows representing the mean performance of the healthy group as a baseline&#44; and showing the deficiency of patients expressed in standard deviations&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The procedure followed in applying statistical techniques was as follows&#46; Firstly&#44; performance differences between groups were examined by using <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-tests&#46; Secondly&#44; the level of association of EFs with ToM was determined within each group of participants by using Pearson&#39;s correlation coefficient&#46; Finally&#44; we carried out a series of three discriminant function analyses&#58; the first one was done by using the most relevant measures of each EF test&#59; the second one was done by using all ToM measures&#44; 3 corresponding to critical &#40;FB items&#41; and 6 to control items &#40;non-FB&#41;&#59; the third analysis included the measures &#40;EF and ToM&#41; that obtained significance in the two previous discriminant analyses&#46; The main aim of every discriminant function analysis was elucidating the relative contribution of EF and ToM measures &#40;on their own and together&#41; when it comes to discriminating between patients and controls&#46; As a secondary aim&#44; we also were interested in clarifying which set of variables were better in classifying participants&#44; that is&#44; testing the goodness of fit of the statistical model in each analysis&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0135">Results</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As it was shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#44; both groups do not differ significantly in age &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;792&#41;&#44; sex ratio &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#41;&#44; educational level &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;852&#41;&#44; or premorbid IQ estimate &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;876&#41;&#46;</p><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0140">Executive functions</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a> summarizes the mean scores of both groups expressed in relative percentage&#46; The contrasts show that patients as a group had a lower performance than controls in almost all measures&#46; The only measures that show no differences between groups are the calculated interference in the Stroop test &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;052&#41;&#44; and the Digit span forward &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;296&#41;&#46; For a better illustration of these results&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-scores transformations depicted on <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a> present the mean performance of the control group as baseline&#44; and show the deficiency of patients expressed in standard deviations&#46; Measures that are derived from a mathematical calculation based on other measures have not been included in the graph because the information they provide is redundant &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; the calculated interference in the Stroop test&#44; the total sum in the Digit span test&#44; or the subtraction B&#8211;A in the TMT&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a> shows that the worse EF performance of patients in relation to their controls is situated in the domain of sustained attention &#40;Toulouse-Pi&#233;ron test&#41; and cognitive flexibility &#40;TMT&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0145">Theory of mind</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0015">Table 3</a> summarizes the relative percentage mean scores of both groups in the three ToM tasks&#46; In all ToM measures &#40;3 FB-critical and 6 non-FB control conditions&#41; patients show significant statistical differences in respect to controls except for the SCR items mean score in ToM-3&#46; Patients performed worse than controls in general &#40;see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#44; and more importantly&#44; in each task &#40;ToM-1&#44; 2 &#38; 3&#41; patients clearly presented their higher difficulty in the FB-critical condition&#46; At this point our interest is to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0015"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0150">Correlations within the patient and control groups</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0020">Table 4</a> shows the correlations within each group between measures of EF and ToM&#46; For the latter the only measures considered are the ones that specifically assess mentalizing abilities in each task&#44; that is&#44; the false belief critical conditions&#46; It can be seen that within the group of patients the relationship between both capacities almost does not appear&#44; while the control group shows associations between ToM abilities and each EF evaluated dimension&#58; attention&#44; working memory&#44; reasoning&#44; cognitive flexibility&#44; and phonologic fluency&#46; Given the absence of significant correlations within the group of patients&#44; we repeated the analyses in this group but controlling for medication dose and symptomatology through partial correlation techniques&#46; When controlling for medication dose&#44; there were no changes in the number of significant correlations&#59; and when controlling for symptomatology &#40;using the 3 PANSS scales together&#41; there were no changes either except for the correlation between FB-ToM-2 and visual puzzles &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">r</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;491&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;033&#41; that reached significance&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0155">Discriminant function analyses</span><span id="sec0100" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0160">Discriminant 1 &#40;EFs&#41;</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The independent variables used as predictors of group membership in the first analysis include 13 EF measures&#46; They are all that appear in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a> with the exception of the three combined measures mentioned in the &#8220;Executive functions&#8221; section&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Just one discriminant function was obtained given that the criterion variable &#8220;group&#8221; was dichotomous&#46; Function 1 was statistically significant &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>44&#46;146&#44; df<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#44; which indicates that it makes a significant contribution to prediction of group affiliation&#46; It accounts for 84&#46;4&#37; of between group variance and separates well patients &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;1&#46;535&#41; from controls &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;535&#41;&#46; In view that the assumption of homoscedasticity was violated &#40;Box&#8217; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>249&#46;190&#44; df1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>91&#44; df2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5528&#46;575&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#44; we used the option of &#8220;separate-groups&#8221; covariance in classification&#46; The usefulness of the equation extracted in discriminating correctly between patients and controls was confirmed by the classification procedure&#46; Results show that 88&#46;6&#37; of subjects were correctly classified in their membership group&#44; exceeding the value for classification based on chance &#40;50&#37;&#41;&#46; Three patients were misclassified as control subjects and two controls as patients&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0025">Table 5</a>&#40;a&#41; the loadings or structure coefficients for function 1 are reported&#46; From the obtained weights&#44; it can be seen that in relation to EFs performance&#44; the best predictors discriminating patients from controls are by this order&#58; &#40;a&#41; Toulouse-Pi&#233;ron test&#44; &#40;b&#41; TMT-B&#44; &#40;c&#41; TMT-A&#44; &#40;d&#41; phonological fluency task&#44; &#40;e&#41; Stroop-C task&#44; &#40;f&#41; block design task&#44; &#40;g&#41; semantic fluency task&#44; and &#40;h&#41; Stroop-WC task&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0025"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0105" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0165">Discriminant 2 &#40;ToM&#41;</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The variables used as predictors in the second analysis include the 9 ToM measures used to assess mentalizing abilities&#46; Just one discriminant function was obtained&#46; Function 1 was statistically significant &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>67&#46;483&#44; df<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>9&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41; and in this case accounts for 91&#46;4&#37; of between group variance&#59; separating perfectly patients &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;2&#46;195&#41; from controls &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;195&#41;&#46; Homoscedasticity was violated &#40;Box&#8217; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>119&#46;885&#44; df1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>45&#44; df2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5795&#46;061&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#44; so we used again the option of &#8220;separate-groups&#8221; covariance in classification&#46; The usefulness of the extracted equation in discriminating correctly between groups was confirmed by the classification procedure&#46; Results show that in this case&#44; all subjects &#40;100&#37;&#41; were correctly classified in their membership group&#44; far exceeding a based on chance classification value&#46; In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0025">Table 5</a>&#40;b&#41;&#44; the structure coefficients for function 1 show that the best predictors discriminating patients from controls are by this order&#58; &#40;a&#41; FB-ToM-2&#44; &#40;b&#41; FB-ToM-1&#44; &#40;c&#41; FB-ToM-3&#44; and &#40;d&#41; NFB-ToM-3&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0110" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0170">Discriminant 3 &#40;EFs and ToM&#41;</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The independent variables employed as predictors in the last analysis of the series are the 8 EF measures that reported significance in the first discriminant analysis&#44; and the 4 ToM measures significant in the second&#46; Only one discriminant function was obtained and was statistically significant &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>62&#46;556&#44; df<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>12&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46; In this case it accounts for 90&#46;8&#37; of between group variance and perfectly separates patients &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;2&#46;114&#41; from controls &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;114&#41;&#46; Homoscedasticity was once more violated &#40;Box&#8217; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>260&#46;069&#44; df1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>78&#44; df2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5570&#46;418&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#44; so we used the option of &#8220;separate-groups&#8221; covariance in classification&#46; The efficacy of the extracted equation in discriminating correctly between groups was confirmed by the classification procedure&#46; Results show that for a second time&#44; all subjects &#40;100&#37;&#41; were correctly classified in their membership group&#46; In <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0025">Table 5</a>&#40;c&#41;&#44; the structure coefficients for function 1 show that in this last analysis&#44; when it comes to separating patients from controls&#44; the best predictors are by this order&#58; &#40;a&#41; Toulouse-Pi&#233;ron test&#44; &#40;b&#41; FB-ToM-2&#44; &#40;c&#41; FB-ToM-1&#44; &#40;d&#41; TMT-B&#44; &#40;e&#41; TMT-A&#44; &#40;f&#41; FB-ToM-3&#44; &#40;g&#41; phonological fluency task&#44; and &#40;h&#41; NFB-ToM-3&#46;</p></span></span></span><span id="sec0115" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0175">Discussion</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The group of patients evaluated in this study shows impairments in both their executive functions and their mentalizing abilities&#46; Deficits in memory&#44; attention&#44; and the assessed executive functions in the group of patients are in accordance with previous studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5&#44;7</span></a> Similarly&#44; impairments in ToM are in line with those found in earlier investigations with comparable tasks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9&#8211;12</span></a> When looking at the EFs performance profile&#44; we have found that the more deteriorated dimensions in our group of patients lie in the areas of sustained attention and cognitive flexibility&#46; In both tests patients performed close to one-and-a-half standard deviations below the score of the healthy group&#46; In relation with mentalizing abilities we have found that in the three ToM tasks used&#44; patients decisively show greater difficulty in the false belief critical conditions than in the neutral ones&#46; The most informative of the ToM results is that in each of the three tasks&#44; patients show their larger differences compared to controls in the critical FB conditions&#44; namely&#44; the items that specifically detect mentalizing abilities&#46; At the same time&#44; it is important to notice that the difference between patients and controls is much bigger in ToM than in EFs&#44; as is well illustrated by comparing <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a> with <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In answer to our main aim&#44; we conducted a correlational analysis within each group of participants in order to clarify the type of relationship between executive and mentalizing abilities&#46; On the one hand&#44; results show almost an absence of correlation between both types of abilities within the patients group&#46; On the other hand&#44; a different pattern appeared within the healthy group&#44; where the association between executive and mentalizing abilities is notorious&#46; In this group&#44; each of the five dimensions evaluated correlated significantly with one or more of the ToM-FB tasks&#46; We interpret that when the executive functions and mentilizing abilities are in use by minds that work within a cognitive standard&#44; as is the case of the healthy group&#44; they show a well-coordinated functioning and they appear consistently interconnected&#46; However&#44; in the case of schizophrenia&#44; where patients suffer a remarkable cognitive breakdown&#44; the deficient executive and mentalizing skills show a less connected functioning&#46; Furthermore&#44; the lack of correlation within the group of patients cannot be explained by the dose of medication prescribed&#44; neither by their present symptomatology&#46; Taking into account the limitations of the sample&#44; we wondered if correlation results would remain stable in the group of patients when using a larger number of participants&#46; But in any case&#44; the relationships between ToM and EFs found in the control group tell us that the lack of significant correlations in patients should be attributed to something different than the number of participants&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The results of the discriminant function analyses show that EF and ToM performance explain a high portion of the variance in the three cases&#44; when the tasks of each dimension were introduced alone or together&#46; At the same time&#44; the three analyses are highly accurate when classifying participants&#46; It can be seen that the one that used ToM tasks as predictors explains more variance than the other two&#44; being better than the first one &#40;EFs&#41; and as good as the third one &#40;joined measures&#41; when classifying participants&#46; That is&#44; adding the EFs measures to the ToM ones does not improve the predictions of the ToM performance alone&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to the structure matrix loadings on the third analysis&#44; the best predictors of group membership are sustained attention&#44; the two non-verbal mentalizing tasks&#44; cognitive flexibility and the verbal ToM task&#46; This result suggests that in the contribution to the separation of groups there is no clear predominance of one dimension over the other&#44; although ToM tasks are better than the EF ones to predict and assign participants to groups&#46;</p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As for the limitations of the study&#44; we consider that the relatively small size of the sample may influence the power of the correlation and discriminant function analysis techniques employed&#46; The fact that most of our participants were long-term ill inpatients could have had some effects on cognitive functioning&#44; but this is an inherent limitation of all investigations with inpatients&#46; Nowadays many neurocognitive researches in schizophrenia involve outpatients so that potential limitation would not be in force&#46; On the other hand&#44; we reduced the number of items of the original verbal Story Task<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> used to assess ToM in order to reduce the verbal memory load in patients and that could have restricted the precision of ToM evaluation&#46; The use of a more complete set of tasks &#40;second order and others for ToM and more diverse ones for EFs&#41; would be desirable for future research in order to improve the accuracy of executive and mentalizing assessment&#46;</p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; according to our evidence and in line with the results obtained in previous studies&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> we can conclude that EFs and ToM abilities are genuinely impaired in people suffering schizophrenia and markedly compromise different aspects of patients&#8217; behavior&#46; Although both types of deficits appear together in the illness&#44; our correlational data suggest that they might belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains&#46; The healthy group has no problem to use interactively their intact executive and mentalizing abilities&#44; but when these get impaired as happens in schizophrenia&#44; they appear to be selectively damaged as the lack of interaction in their functioning demonstrates&#46; This conclusion should have its projection when designing cognitive rehabilitation programs since EFs and ToM deficiencies are both involved<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> in the functional outcome of schizophrenia&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0125" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0180">Ethical disclosures</span><span id="sec0130" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0185">Protection of human and animal subjects</span><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this investigation&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0135" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0190">Confidentiality of data</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have followed the protocols of their work center on the publication of patient data and that all the patients included in the study have received sufficient information and have given their informed consent in writing to participate in that study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0140" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0195">Right to privacy and informed consent</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors have obtained the informed consent of the patients and&#47;or subjects mentioned in the article&#46; The author for correspondence is in possession of this document&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0120" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0200">Funding</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work was partially supported by the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs1">Spanish Ministry of Science and Education</span> &#40;research project PSI 2012-37623&#41; and by a grant from the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs2">Generalitat de Catalunya</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs2">2009-SGR-401</span>&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0145" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0205">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare no conflict of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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              "titulo" => "ToM assessment"
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                  "titulo" => "ToM-1&#46; Picture sequencing task &#40;non-verbal&#41;"
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                  "titulo" => "ToM-2&#46; Cartoon task &#40;non-verbal&#41;"
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                  "titulo" => "ToM-3&#46; Story task &#40;verbal&#41;"
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                  "titulo" => "Discriminant 1 &#40;EFs&#41;"
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                  "titulo" => "Discriminant 2 &#40;ToM&#41;"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2013-10-07"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2014-01-09"
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          "clase" => "keyword"
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            0 => "Schizophrenia"
            1 => "Executive function"
            2 => "Theory of mind"
            3 => "Neuropsychological tests"
            4 => "Discriminant analysis"
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          "palabras" => array:5 [
            0 => "Esquizofrenia"
            1 => "Funci&#243;n ejecutiva"
            2 => "Teor&#237;a de la mente"
            3 => "Pruebas neuropsicol&#243;gicas"
            4 => "An&#225;lisis discriminante"
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    "resumen" => array:2 [
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Introduction</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Patients with schizophrenia have been found impaired in important aspects of their basic and social cognition&#46; Our aim in this study is to explore the relationship between executive function &#40;EF&#41; and theory of mind &#40;ToM&#41; deficiencies in patients that suffer the illness&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Materials and methods</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Twenty-two Spanish-speaking inpatients and 22 healthy controls matched in age&#44; sex&#44; education&#44; language dominance&#44; and premorbid IQ were assessed in EF and ToM abilities&#46; The former were assessed using 10 tasks that covered 5 cognitive dimensions and the latter using 3 different tasks&#46; Correlation analyses were used to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities&#46; A series of discriminant function analyses were carried out to examine the relative contribution of each executive and mentalizing task to discriminate between patients and controls&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Patients showed impairments in both&#44; executive and ToM abilities&#46; The correlation analyses showed a virtual absence of association between EF and ToM abilities within the group of patients&#44; and an almost opposite pattern within the healthy group&#46; ToM performance was more accurate than executive performance to discriminate patients from controls&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Although EFs and ToM deficits come into view together in schizophrenia&#44; they appear to belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains&#46;</p></span>"
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            "titulo" => "Materials and methods"
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          2 => array:2 [
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Introducci&#243;n</span><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">En la esquizofrenia se han encontrado alteraciones en aspectos importantes de la cognici&#243;n b&#225;sica y social&#46; El objetivo de este estudio es explorar la relaci&#243;n entre deficiencias en funci&#243;n ejecutiva &#40;FE&#41; y en teor&#237;a de la mente &#40;TM&#41; en pacientes que sufren esta enfermedad&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Materiales y m&#233;todos</span><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Veintid&#243;s pacientes de habla hispana y 22 controles emparejados a los primeros en edad&#44; sexo&#44; educaci&#243;n&#44; lengua dominante y CI prem&#243;rbido fueron evaluados en FE y capacidad de TM&#46; Para evaluar las FEs se utilizaron 10 tareas que abarcan 5 dimensiones cognitivas&#44; mientras que para evaluar la TM se han utilizado 3 tareas distintas&#46; Para explorar el grado de asociaci&#243;n entre habilidades ejecutivas y mentalistas se han empleado t&#233;cnicas de an&#225;lisis correlacional&#46; A trav&#233;s del an&#225;lisis discriminante se ha examinado la contribuci&#243;n relativa de cada tarea ejecutiva y mentalista a la hora de discriminar entre pacientes y controles&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los pacientes presentaron alteraciones tanto en su capacidad ejecutiva como mentalista&#46; El an&#225;lisis de correlaci&#243;n mostr&#243; una ausencia de asociaci&#243;n entre FEs y habilidades de TM dentro del grupo de pacientes&#44; mientras que el patr&#243;n fue m&#225;s bien opuesto en el grupo control&#46; El rendimiento en TM fue m&#225;s preciso que el rendimiento ejecutivo para predecir a qu&#233; grupo pertenec&#237;an los participantes&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Aunque los d&#233;ficits en FE y en TM aparecen conjuntamente en la esquizofrenia&#44; ambos pertenecen a dominios cognitivos distintos y relativamente independientes&#46;</p></span>"
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        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0040">Please cite this article as&#58; Gavil&#225;n JM&#44; Garc&#237;a-Albea JE&#46; La funci&#243;n ejecutiva en la esquizofrenia y su asociaci&#243;n con las habilidades cognitivas sociales &#40;mentalistas&#41;&#46; Rev Psiquiatr Salud Ment &#40;Barc&#46;&#41;&#46; 2015&#59;8&#58;119&#8211;129&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Profile of performance in every EF measure&#58; performance of patients is expressed in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-scores and based on the means and SDs of the healthy control subjects&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Profile of performance in each ToM task&#58; performance of patients is expressed in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">z</span>-scores and based on the means and SDs of the healthy control subjects&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0085" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">IQ&#44; intellectual quotient&#59; m&#44; men&#59; n&#46;s&#46;&#44; non significant&#59; PANSS&#44; Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale&#59; w&#44; women&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Controls&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#967;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#47;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-values&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Sex ratio &#40;m&#58;w&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">18&#58;4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">18&#58;4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">0&#46;000 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Age &#40;years&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">42&#46;82<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;84&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">41&#46;95<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;78&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">0&#46;265 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Educational level &#40;years&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">10&#46;18<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;38&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">10&#46;05<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;44&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">0&#46;188 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Premorbid IQ estimate&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">107&#46;10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>15&#46;64&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;157 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Age onset illness &#40;years&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">23&#46;09<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>7&#46;98&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Duration of illness &#40;years&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">19&#46;91<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;76&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Antipsychotic agents &#40;mean chlorpromazine mg&#47;day&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">833&#46;46<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>492&#46;49&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PANSS&#43;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">16&#46;09<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;72&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PANSS&#8722;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">19&#46;00<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;74&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PANSS general&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">34&#46;41<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#46;44&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PANSS sum&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">69&#46;50<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>12&#46;89&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8211;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical and demographic details of participants &#40;means<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>standard deviations&#41;&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Schizophrenia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Controls&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-values&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Attention</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Stroop &#40;words&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">72&#46;55<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>16&#46;81&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">82&#46;92<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>14&#46;08&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;2&#46;21<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Stroop &#40;colors&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">65&#46;51<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#46;57&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">82&#46;38<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;89&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;4&#46;54<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Stroop &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">w</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#43;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">c</span>&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">53&#46;52<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>17&#46;05&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">72&#46;41<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>16&#46;98&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;3&#46;68<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Stroop &#40;interference&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">32&#46;41<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>11&#46;56&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">42&#46;38<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>20&#46;32&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;2&#46;00 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Toulouse-Pi&#233;ron&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">29&#46;47<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>16&#46;48&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">68&#46;59<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>14&#46;30&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;8&#46;40<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Working memory</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Digit span &#40;forward&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">52&#46;27<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;30&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">55&#46;68<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>11&#46;06&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;1&#46;05 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Digit span &#40;backward&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">33&#46;11<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;46&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">44&#46;15<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#46;16&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;3&#46;07<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Digit span &#40;total&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">43&#46;33<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>8&#46;23&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">50&#46;30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#46;97&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;2&#46;38<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Reasoning</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Similarities&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">46&#46;28<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#46;91&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">58&#46;54<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>11&#46;47&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;3&#46;19<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Block design&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">46&#46;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#46;82&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">68&#46;84<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>19&#46;67&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;4&#46;43<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Visual puzzles&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">44&#46;75<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>12&#46;39&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">57&#46;42<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>17&#46;71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;2&#46;74<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cognitive flexibility</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>TMT-A&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">84&#46;22<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>7&#46;75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">94&#46;77<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;99&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;6&#46;18<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>TMT-B&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">44&#46;39<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>30&#46;54&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">87&#46;87<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>7&#46;42&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;6&#46;48<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>TMT B&#8211;A&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">61&#46;18<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>24&#46;09&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">91&#46;01<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#46;41&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;5&#46;61<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="4" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Verbal fluency</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Phonologic fluency&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">44&#46;83<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>15&#46;49&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">69&#46;52<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>15&#46;08&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;5&#46;35<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Semantic fluency&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">50&#46;91<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>14&#46;62&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">66&#46;51<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>11&#46;89&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;3&#46;88&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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              "identificador" => "tblfn0005"
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              "identificador" => "tblfn0010"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Mean performance of patients and controls on EFs tests expressed in relative &#37; &#40;means<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>standard deviations&#41;&#46;</p>"
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        "identificador" => "tbl0015"
        "etiqueta" => "Table 3"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0095" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">CAP&#44; capture stories&#59; FB&#44; false-belief&#59; MEC&#44; mechanical&#59; n&#46;s&#46;&#44; non significant&#59; SCR&#44; scrambled stories&#59; SS&#44; everyday social routines&#46;</p>"
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                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Schizophrenia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Controls&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-values&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 &#40;SS&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">93&#46;37<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>9&#46;24&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">98&#46;86<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;67&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;2&#46;590<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 &#40;MEC&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">79&#46;74<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>22&#46;72&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">93&#46;94<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>9&#46;59&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;2&#46;701<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 &#40;CAP&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">55&#46;68<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>17&#46;56&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">74&#46;05<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>16&#46;51&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;3&#46;574<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-1 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">42&#46;42<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>20&#46;19&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">84&#46;85<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>17&#46;13&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;7&#46;514<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-2 &#40;non-FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">81&#46;67<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>14&#46;71&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">96&#46;67<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;14&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;4&#46;512<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-2 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">71&#46;21<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>15&#46;24&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">97&#46;27<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;02&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;7&#46;866<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-3 &#40;SCR&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">60&#46;61<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>19&#46;61&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">62&#46;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>21&#46;32&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;245 n&#46;s&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-3 &#40;non-FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">50&#46;76<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>27&#46;92&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">85&#46;61<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>18&#46;75&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;4&#46;859<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">ToM-3 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">38&#46;64<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>33&#46;48&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">87&#46;88<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>17&#46;95&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">&#8722;6&#46;079<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">FB&#58; false belief condition&#46;</p>"
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                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="" valign="top" scope="col">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FB&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;292&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;191&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;392&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;115&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;575<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;255&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;358&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Stroop &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">w</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#43;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">c</span>&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;111&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;248&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;180&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;378&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;269&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Stroop &#40;interference&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;153&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;067&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;069&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;134&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;379&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;060&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;182&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;068&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;216&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;034&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;002&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;607<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Working memory</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Digit span &#40;forward&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;236&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;126&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;094&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;008&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;515<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;338&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Digit span &#40;backward&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;279&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;248&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;284&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;041&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;435<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;310&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Digit span &#40;total&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;008&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;063&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;106&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;027&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;520<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;355&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Reasoning</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Similarities&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;214&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;521<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;212&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;164&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;593<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;340&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Block design&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;187&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;514<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;266&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;210&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;670<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;480<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Visual puzzles&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;265&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;375&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;181&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;079&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;465<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;057&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cognitive flexibility</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>TMT-A&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;172&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;541<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;335&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;093&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;235&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;096&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>TMT-B&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;045&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;410&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;283&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;210&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;205&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;502<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>TMT B-A&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;006&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;305&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;220&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;195&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;147&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;505<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="7" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Verbal fluency</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Phonologic fluency&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;265&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;220&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;311&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;402&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;148&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;575<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Semantic fluency&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;313&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;022&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;026&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;109&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">&#8722;0&#46;071&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;128&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#40;a&#41; EF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Function 1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#40;c&#41; EF plus ToM&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Function 1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Toulouse-P&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;826<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TOM-2 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;540<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Toulouse-P&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;599<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TMT-B&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;637<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;516<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TOM-2 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;561<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TMT-A&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;607<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;418<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TOM-1 &#40;FB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;536<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">PH&#46; fluency&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;526<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TOM-3 &#40;NFB&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;334<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">TMT-B&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;463<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#42;</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;316&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;277&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="char" valign="top">0&#46;218&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0080" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Structure matrix corresponding to the three discriminant analysis&#58; &#40;a&#41; EF&#44; &#40;b&#41; ToM and &#40;c&#41; combined EF and ToM variables&#46;</p>"
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Article information

ISSN: 21735050
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.rpsmen.2015.05.003

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Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	8	0	8
2024 October	20	5	25
2024 September	24	6	30
2024 August	33	4	37
2024 July	23	2	25
2024 June	34	6	40
2024 May	25	3	28
2024 April	23	2	25
2024 March	38	4	42
2024 February	27	6	33
2024 January	16	2	18
2023 December	17	7	24
2023 November	9	3	12
2023 October	13	5	18
2023 September	12	1	13
2023 August	24	2	26
2023 July	9	5	14
2023 June	8	1	9
2023 May	8	1	9
2023 April	14	3	17
2023 March	10	2	12
2023 February	18	5	23
2023 January	24	4	28
2022 December	27	6	33
2022 November	31	10	41
2022 October	25	11	36
2022 September	23	9	32
2022 August	25	8	33
2022 July	18	10	28
2022 June	17	21	38
2022 May	25	8	33
2022 April	12	11	23
2022 March	15	7	22
2022 February	16	8	24
2022 January	25	11	36
2021 December	24	15	39
2021 November	17	12	29
2021 October	38	15	53
2021 September	30	18	48
2021 August	30	7	37
2021 July	26	11	37
2021 June	29	10	39
2021 May	59	11	70
2021 April	140	28	168
2021 March	56	7	63
2021 February	47	15	62
2021 January	37	12	49
2020 December	39	11	50
2020 November	31	7	38
2020 October	32	11	43
2020 September	23	9	32
2020 August	27	11	38
2020 July	31	14	45
2020 June	28	11	39
2020 May	27	11	38
2020 April	31	3	34
2020 March	27	6	33
2020 February	20	4	24
2020 January	25	7	32
2019 December	27	15	42
2019 November	19	6	25
2019 October	13	7	20
2019 September	17	5	22
2019 August	19	7	26
2019 July	15	17	32
2019 June	52	16	68
2019 May	119	30	149
2019 April	52	12	64
2019 March	11	5	16
2019 February	10	4	14
2019 January	17	14	31
2018 December	11	1	12
2018 November	8	2	10
2018 October	10	9	19
2018 September	23	7	30
2018 August	9	4	13
2018 July	13	2	15
2018 June	9	4	13
2018 May	14	6	20
2018 April	10	12	22
2018 March	10	1	11
2018 February	7	0	7
2018 January	10	2	12
2017 December	17	2	19
2017 November	5	1	6
2017 October	13	7	20
2017 September	13	4	17
2017 August	8	1	9
2017 July	7	1	8
2017 June	14	4	18
2017 May	25	3	28
2017 April	27	5	32
2017 March	16	1	17
2017 February	16	2	18
2017 January	23	2	25
2016 December	31	4	35
2016 November	28	3	31
2016 October	37	9	46
2016 September	53	10	63
2016 August	29	4	33
2016 July	30	1	31
2016 June	27	10	37
2016 May	35	19	54
2016 April	29	15	44
2016 March	43	22	65
2016 February	43	22	65
2016 January	30	16	46
2015 December	33	20	53
2015 November	37	29	66
2015 October	89	51	140
2015 September	49	25	74

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