Letter to the editor
Interactions between human microbiota and vaccines; Current perspectives
Interacciones entre la microbiota humana y las vacunas; Perspectivas actuales
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Calculation of activation level: Unit D 6-methyl 1H NMR peak moved due to activation. The activation level (%) can be obtained by comparing the integration of shifted peak and the total D-6 integration. 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In this context, only 58% of Nicaraguan and 46% of Bangladeshi children respond to the oral rotavirus vaccine (RV), whereas the RV vaccine's efficacy in Finland is over 98%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Recent studies have focused on the association between the human microbiome and vaccine-specific immune response.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3–5</span></a> The human microbiota contains thousands of commensal microorganisms that reside in the gut, lung, skin, as well as other mucosal epithelial surfaces. The microbiota could have influenced human pathophysiological events through metabolizing nutrients, hampering pathogen colonization, synthesizing various metabolites, as well as strengthening mucosal immunity.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> The human microbiota also has an impact on susceptibility to the cardiovascular, central nervous system, digestive, allergic, and autoimmune diseases, or even anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (anti-PD-1)-based cancer immunotherapy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="p0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As a result of these findings, the gut microbial community developing at an early stage of life plays an essential role in developing and shaping immune responses.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) influences the maturation of immune cells via stimulating the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in leukocytes, differentiation of immune cells resulting in microbial metabolites, and polyclonal stimulation immune responses, as well as pre-defined immune memory for combating pathogens after exposure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Despite extensive research on the impact of microbiota on the immune system, the effect of human microbial communities on the immune response to vaccination remains poorly understood. Understanding the sophisticated interactions between human microbiota and vaccines can lead to optimal immunogenicity of current vaccines.</p><p id="p0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to the literature, the microbial composition could be linked to variance in responses to oral vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> In addition to the impact that microbial composition might have, researchers have found that toll-like receptor (TLR5)-mediated by microbiota was necessary to activate antibody response to influenza vaccine in mice model.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Primary experiments have shown that germ-free animals lacking microbiota reduced the quantity and function of lymphoid cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Moreover, impaired immune response, such as insufficient IgA-producing plasma cells, and reduced antibody titers in response to respiratory infections in sterile mice or antibody-treated mice are suggested.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Human investigations confirmed the impairment of vaccine-induced antibodies when there is a disturbance of the microbiota.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Thus, the human microbial composition would play an important role in vaccine-induced immune responses (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0005">Fig. 1</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="f0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="p0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Antibiotic-induced disbiosis is related to the reduction of IgG response, T-cell subsets, and dendritic cells (DCs), as well as a reduction of lymph nodes within human tissue in response to various oral vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Furthermore, there is numerous of evidence for impaired inflammation and mortality during airway infection following the depletion of the intestinal microbiome in animal models.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> Both small and large intestines include a large number of circulating immune cells, e.g., B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, as well as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that gut bacterial communities can shape the maturation of immune response in the intestinal luz. In this relation, immune-related responses to oral vaccines, such as polio, cholera, typhoid fever, and rotavirus, are the most live-attenuated live vaccines and would be influenced by gut microbiota compositions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> However, the microbiota can also influence the immune response at a distance from the originating colonization site.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> Conserved microbial structures from the gut microbiota community are disseminated to the spleen to stimulate the production of IgG.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> Williams et al. have suggested that HIV vaccine-induced exclusive lymphocytes originate from the initial pool of intestinal cross-reactive immune cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Another study by Macia et al. showed that the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbiota have beneficial effects on plasma cell differentiation and antibody responses.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p><p id="p0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several human trials have been conducted to support the impact that human microbiota can have on the vaccine-induced immune response. Recently, the association between microbiota composition and oral rotavirus vaccination in responders and non-responders has been an issue in various countries.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Bifidobacterium</span> abundance correlates with a strong response to polio, BCG, tetanus toxoid, and hepatitis B virus oral vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> Consistent with these findings, several studies have shown that alternations in alpha and beta diversity of the compost gut-microbial communities and reduction of bacterial richness could impair host protection to the acquisition of lung infections, i.e., SARS-CoV-2 infection.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> In relation to this issue, probiotics being also live organisms confers a health benefit to the host following gastrointestinal disbiosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> Oral administration of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Lactobacillus</span> as a prophylactic route in a mouse model showed activation of both innate as well as adaptive immunity against influenza infection.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> Likewise, a meta-analysis has confirmed the clinical efficacy of probiotic supplementation for the reduction of respiratory infections.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> There are several experiments regarding the positive influence of probiotic administration to enhance vaccine-induced-immune response when administrating, i.e., polio, rotavirus, diphtheria, HBV, tetanus, Hib, and pneumococcus vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p><p id="p0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In conclusion, the microbiota composition has beneficial effects on the maturation of immune responses as well as the effectiveness of vaccine-induced immune responses. However, the mechanism of action remains unclear. In this context, probiotics confer benefits by boosting vaccine-specific immunity. In contrast, a few controversial studies report the adverse effects of probiotics on immune-induced vaccine responses might confound results.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> However, factors such as type of vaccine, dose, administration route, and duration of probiotic supplementation might confound results. Overall, maintaining microbiota, probiotic supplementation, and the incorporation of bacterial metabolites such as SCFAs, tryptophan metabolite, polysaccharide A, sphingolipids, as well as muramyl dipeptide can play important roles in the enhancement of immune response to vaccines.</p></span>" "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "multimedia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1124 "Ancho" => 2043 "Tamanyo" => 259476 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0005" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp4000" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The main mechanism of gut microbiota actions regarding boosting the vaccine-induced immune response against respiratory infections.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:24 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bb0005" "etiqueta" => "1." 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| Year/Month | Html | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2024 November | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| 2024 October | 8 | 7 | 15 |
| 2024 September | 6 | 6 | 12 |
| 2024 August | 7 | 6 | 13 |
| 2024 July | 9 | 8 | 17 |
| 2024 June | 9 | 9 | 18 |
| 2024 May | 9 | 8 | 17 |
| 2024 April | 7 | 7 | 14 |
| 2024 March | 8 | 6 | 14 |
| 2024 February | 8 | 4 | 12 |
| 2024 January | 6 | 0 | 6 |
| 2023 December | 8 | 0 | 8 |
| 2023 November | 9 | 0 | 9 |
| 2023 October | 25 | 0 | 25 |
| 2023 September | 10 | 0 | 10 |
| 2023 August | 16 | 0 | 16 |
| 2023 July | 34 | 16 | 50 |
| 2023 June | 15 | 0 | 15 |
| 2023 May | 6 | 2 | 8 |
| 2023 April | 4 | 2 | 6 |
| 2023 March | 0 | 5 | 5 |
| 2023 February | 0 | 8 | 8 |
Show all