One Health approach to Nipah virus prevention

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Yadav, Deepak Y. Patil, Rima R. Sahay, Anita M. Shete, Sreelekshmy Mohandas, Velu Nair" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Pragya D." "apellidos" => "Yadav" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Deepak Y." "apellidos" => "Patil" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Rima R." "apellidos" => "Sahay" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Anita M." 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Las tasas hacen referencia a habitantes/año. Referencias: a,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0270">12</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275">13</a> b,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0270">12</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275">13</a> c<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0010">2</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0280">14–16</a> *Para toda la población." ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "José María Molero, Jesús Ortega, Irene Montoro, Natalia McCormick" "autores" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "José María" "apellidos" => "Molero" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Jesús" "apellidos" => "Ortega" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Irene" "apellidos" => "Montoro" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Natalia" "apellidos" => "McCormick" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "es" "Traduccion" => array:1 [ "en" => array:9 [ "pii" => "S2445146024000281" "doi" => "10.1016/j.vacune.2024.05.001" "estado" => "S300" "subdocumento" => "" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2445146024000281?idApp=UINPBA00004N" ] ] "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S1576988724000025?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/15769887/0000002500000002/v2_202405080710/S1576988724000025/v2_202405080710/es/main.assets" ] "en" => array:19 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "Review article" "titulo" => "One Health approach to Nipah virus prevention" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "264" "paginaFinal" => "273" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Muhammad Safdar, Shafeeq ur Rehman, Muhammad Younus, Muhammad Arif Rizwan, Muhammad Kaleem, Mehmet Ozaslan" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Muhammad" "apellidos" => "Safdar" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "msafdar@cuvas.edu.pk" ] "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "af0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "*" "identificador" => "cr0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Shafeeq ur" "apellidos" => "Rehman" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "af0010" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Muhammad" "apellidos" => "Younus" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "af0015" ] ] ] 3 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Muhammad Arif" "apellidos" => "Rizwan" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "af0020" ] ] ] 4 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Muhammad" "apellidos" => "Kaleem" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "af0020" ] ] ] 5 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Mehmet" "apellidos" => "Ozaslan" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "e" "identificador" => "af0025" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:5 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Breeding and Genetics, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "af0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Microbiology, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "af0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Zoolgy, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "af0015" ] 3 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan" "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "af0020" ] 4 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Biology, Division of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey" "etiqueta" => "e" "identificador" => "af0025" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cr0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding authors." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Un enfoque de salud Para la prevención del virus Nipah" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1850 "Ancho" => 2766 "Tamanyo" => 271394 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0005" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Potential hosts of Nipah virus and transmission mechanisms." ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "Introduction to Nipah virus and One HealthRecently, as of September 24, 2023, there have been 6 documented cases of Nipah virus (NiV), resulting in 2 fatalities. These incidents have exclusively occurred within Kozhikode District in Northern Kerala, India. In the neighbor country, Bangladesh, this virus caused an epidemic in January and February of 2023. Therefore, it is important to consider this virus seriously before it gets pandemic status in the world.Zoonotic disease outbreaks are often unpredictable, random, and infrequent occurrences that might have disastrous effects.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0005">1</a> The Nipah virus (NiV), SARS-CoV-2, Ebola virus, and other zoonotic viruses all have significant hosts in bats; nevertheless, relatively little is known about the ecological factors and dynamics of these viruses' proliferation in their reservoir hosts.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0010">2</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0015">3</a> The NiV is a zoonotic virus that may infect people via animals, both domestic and wild. The NiV's natural host is the Pteropodidae family of fruit bats. Infection with NiV might be asymptomatic but it can also result in encephalitis and an acute respiratory disease. Negative-sense RNA viruses that are enclosed and non-segmented belong to the family Paramyxoviridae. Six structural proteins are encoded in their genomes: nucleocapsid (N), matrix protein (M), large protein or RNA polymerase (L), glycoprotein or receptor-binding protein (G), fusion protein (F), phosphoprotein (P), and glycoprotein (G). The estimated case death rate is 40%–75% or more, and it varies according to the particular strain of NiV,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0020">4</a> the quality and availability of health care, or the degree of disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025">5</a> Neither human nor animal vaccinations nor explicitly authorized therapies are currently available for NiV infection.NiV outbreaks have only been reported in Asia so far. Pig farmers in the Malaysian town of Sungai Nipah were engaged in the initial epidemic, which was documented in 1998–1999.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030">6</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035">7</a> In 1998, there was an outbreak of neurological and respiratory infections on pig farms in Peninsular Malaysia. This outbreak led to 265 human cases and 108 deaths, which were the first reported cases of NiV infection.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040">8</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0045">9</a> The virus was isolated in 1999, the year that followed. Due to this epidemic, a million pigs had to be culled. NiV cases were documented in 2001 in Siliguri, India, and Meherpur District, Bangladesh.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0050">10</a> In the years 2003, 2004, and 2005, the epidemic resurfaced in the districts of Naogaon, Manikganj, Rajbari, Faridpur, and Tangail.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0055">11</a> There were further epidemics in Bangladesh in the years that followed. The NiV reappeared in Kerala, India in September 2021, killing a 12-year-old kid.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0060">12</a> The NiV most recently caused an epidemic in Bangladesh in January and February of 2023 “Nipah virus infection – Bangladesh”. who.int. Retrieved 2023-07-19.Peninsular Malaysian piggeries and bat habitats are considered to be increasingly overlapping, which is the reason for the NiV's transfer from flying foxes to pigs. Fruit orchards and the piggery were near at hand at the index farm, which allowed urine, feces, and half-eaten fruit to fall upon the pigs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0065">13</a> Past research indicates that there might have been unreported viral spillover into pigs in Malaysia since 1996. In 1998, virus propagation was facilitated by the movement of diseased pigs to neighboring farms, which led to fresh outbreaks.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040">8</a> NiV strains are categorized into 2 clades based on changes in the sequencing of either the complete or partial nucleocapsid (N) gene (Clade I: NiV-B in Bangladesh and India, and Clade II: NiV-M in Malaysia). This shows that NiV was introduced into these nations in 2 different ways.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0070">14</a> The 2 strains vary in clinical characteristics and modes of transmission in Malaysia and India/Bangladesh, although having more than 92% genetic similarity and amino acid homology.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0075">15</a> Two different NiV-M subclades that are spreading in northern and southern Malaysia were also verified by phylogenetic analysis; these subclades most likely come from different hosts.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0080">16</a>The bronchiole epithelial cells may be used to identify viruses during the first stages of sickness. In the bronchi and alveoli of experimental animal models, viral antigens have been observed. Later on in the disease, the virus may also be detected in the blood and lung endothelial, either unbound or attached to the host's leukocytes. The patient eventually has multiple organ failure as a result of the virus attacking their brain, lungs, spleen, and kidneys.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030">6</a> For both NiV clades, ephrin-B2 (EFNB2) and ephrin-B3 (EFNB3) have been documented to be the primary functional receptors. Henipaviruses have a broad host range, which may be explained by the existence of these receptors in several animals.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0085">17</a>Since NiV is classified as a Risk Group 4 pathogen, certain containment and obstacle prevention procedures must be followed while handling specimens harboring NiV. This includes those working with samples in laboratories, medical staff tending to possibly contaminated patients, and anybody handling deceased corpses. BSL-4 facilities are necessary for the propagation, isolation, quantification, and neutralization of viruses. When exposed to local ambient conditions, NiV may persist in some fruit juices or fruits for up to 3 days, demonstrating its relative stability. When date palm sap is stored at 22 °C, it may stay contagious for at least 7 days. For an hour, it stays viable at 70 °C. On the other hand, heating it to 100 °C for more than 15 min will fully deactivate it. NiV may be rendered inactive by cleansers, detergents, and sodium hypochlorite (10 000 ppm) because of its enveloped nature.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030">6</a> NiV infectivity in serum and plasma was reported to be effectively reduced by using UV-C and medium-base lights,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0090">18</a> in conjunction with heating.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0095">19</a> Further details on techniques for inactivating NiV-contaminated material may be found in Widerspick et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0100">20</a>Three countries have reported single or sporadic recurrent outbreaks since the original recognition: India (2001, 2007, 2018, 2019, 2021), the Philippines in 2014, and Bangladesh (first epidemic in 2001, followed by 9 outbreaks till 2010 and 2011). The most probable origins of infection in Bangladesh and India were fruits or fruit derivatives contaminated with fruit bat feces or urine <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus</a>. Also reported were reports of human-to-human transfer.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0105">21</a> The 3 most often reported methods of human-to-equine transmission in the Philippines were eating raw or undercooked horse meat, coming into touch with contaminated items while ill horses were being slaughtered, and direct contact with diseased animals.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0110">22</a>It has been shown that the primary NiV receptors are ephrins B2 and B3.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115">23</a> The expression of ephrin subtypes varies widely across the body, with the B3 subtype being especially highly expressed in some forebrain subregions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0120">24</a> There is an immediate demand for a One Health strategy on a global scale owing to the thousands of children and adults who die every day due to illnesses that go undiagnosed and arise at the human–animal–environment interface, as well as the rapid expansion of the human population and environmental alterations.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0125">25</a> In order to change morbidity patterns, healthcare usage, and behavior of specific groups, One Health strategy necessitates a multifaceted field of effort employing individual, organizational, and cultural interventions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0130">26</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0135">27</a>The “One Health” idea may be used to encourage and improve the health of humans and animals via creative partnerships, collaborations, and research/surveillance/control programs. To protect the health of people and their companion animals, it is imperative that the latest developments in diagnostics and therapeutics be fully investigated.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0140">28–30</a>75% of newly developing infectious illnesses are zoonotic, the significance of this kind of approach is especially clear in the area of infectious diseases. One example of the need of a One Health strategy is NiV.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0155">31</a> Over a million pigs had to be culled as a result of the first reported epidemic in Malaysia in 1998, which claimed the lives of 105 people.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0155">31</a> When an individual contracts the virus, they may first experience fever, headaches, and vomiting. If left untreated, these symptoms may worsen and lead to respiratory illnesses, encephalitis, and often even death.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0045">9</a> NiV outbreaks with an average death rate of 74.5% were also first documented in Bangladesh in 2001 and continued roughly yearly afterward.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0160">32</a> Large fruit bats known as flying foxes are the natural reservoir hosts of NiV; nevertheless, they do not seem to exhibit symptoms of illness when infected.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0165">33</a> A major contributing component to NiV epidemics is the interplay between people, animals, and the environment. The habitats of humans and bats are increasingly overlapping in Bangladesh due to deforestation and urbanization in certain regions. This overlap might raise the possibility of “spillover” occurrences, when NiV crosses the species barrier and infects humans, by encouraging encounters between humans and bats. NiV, for instance, may be spread on fruit that sick bats reject. When domesticated animals eat this fruit, they may act as a vector for the spread of NiV to humans. NiV may spread from person-to-person once infected, potentially leading to local epidemics. Although vaccinations have the potential to be an effective means of immediately preventing and containing NiV outbreaks in Bangladesh and elsewhere, their usefulness must be weighed against the ecological complications of the disease's spread, such as deforestation, interactions between humans and bats, and human-to-human transmission.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0170">34</a> Therefore, this review underscores the critical need for early detection, community awareness, and global collaboration to address the lethal NiV, emphasizing urgent efforts in vaccine development and healthcare system reinforcement.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0175">35</a> The One Health approach emerges as a proactive strategy, ensuring comprehensive preparedness against future outbreaks.Nipah virus TransmissionFruit bats serve as the NiV's natural reservoir hosts. They are capable of carrying the infection without exhibiting symptoms. They often have the NiV in their feces, urine, and saliva. Domesticated animals, such as pigs, are often the intermediate hosts via which the NiV spreads to people during epidemics. These animals may get the virus if they eat fruits or other foodstuffs tainted with bat urine or saliva.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180">36</a> The viral load may then be increased by using infected pigs as amplifying hosts. When humans come into close proximity to diseased bats or their polluted surroundings, the NiV may also spread from bats to people directly.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180">36</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0185">37</a>There are a few documented outbreaks of NiV in Asia. It first originated in 1998 after a pig farmer epidemic in the Malaysian town of Sungai Nipah.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030">6</a> A further incident occurred in Singapore in March 1999, involving 11 personnel in the slaughterhouse who were connected to pigs shipped from a Malaysian farm that had the NiV.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035">7</a> These 2 outbreaks resulted in the reporting of 246 cases in all. Workers in abattoirs and pig farmers were recognized as the high-risk category. The transportation of fruit bats from Indonesia to other regions of southeast Asia was thought to have been caused by a time of massive forest burning for agricultural purposes, which was thought to be the fundamental cause of the geographical expansion of NiV reservoir hosts.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0190">38</a>The trends of NiV circulation in bats and the potential pathways for the virus to spread to domestic animals are still mostly unclear.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0195">39</a> It is yet unknown how other bat species, outside Pteropid bats, contribute to the spread of NiV. The Rousettus aegyptiacus is the only fruit bat found in Europe, is incapable of supporting NiV replication in experiments.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0200">40</a> The Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii), an insectivorous bat species that is common across Europe and portions of Asia, was discovered to have henipavirus antibodies in China. However, no particular RNA was found.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0205">41</a> Bats shed viruses cyclically, which is caused by immunological (waning protection, stress during pregnancy) and demographic (population turnover, migration of infected bats) causes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210">42</a>Animals may get NiV via eating contaminated fruit that has been contaminated by fruit bat saliva or urine<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030">6</a> or by consuming meat that has been infected.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0110">22</a> Close contact with other animals that are contaminated.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0215">43</a> In animal models, rectal shedding of live virus has been shown.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0220">44</a> Merely consuming raw or undercooked meat from contaminated animals, or consuming food products contaminated by the body fluids of contaminated animals may transmit NiV infection. Urine, saliva, blood, pharyngeal, and respiratory secretions, as well as excretions and secretions from infected wild or domesticated animals, may all directly expose people to NiV infection. Consideration should also be given to virus-containing aerosols spreading to people.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0225">45</a>It has also been shown that family members and caregivers of sick patients may get the NiV from one person to another. The NiV was directly transmitted from person to person during the subsequent epidemics in Bangladesh and India via intimate contact with bodily fluids and excretions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0230">46</a> as shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0005">Fig. 1</a>. In 2001, there were reports of viral transmission in a medical environment in Siliguri, India, with 75% of infections occurring among visitors or hospital employees. Approximately, 50% of instances that were recorded in Bangladesh between 2001 and 2008 were from treating patients who were infected by other people <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus</a>.<elsevierMultimedia ident="f0005"></elsevierMultimedia>The role of bats in Nipah virus reservoir and transmissionThe reservoir and transmission cycle of the NiV are significantly influenced by bats. Bat populations aid in the continuance of the virus. Bats that are infected have the ability to excrete and secrete the virus, which may contaminate their roost and feeding grounds. This is one method by which bat populations get infected with the virus. There are several methods by which the NiV may spread from bats to people. Infected bats or their body fluids may infect anyone who comes into close touch with them.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180">36</a> This may happen if people come into contact with bats, touch them, eat fruits, or other food that has been contaminated by bat urine or saliva, or go into caves or other places where bats live.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180">36</a> Pigs are examples of intermediate hosts through which the NiV has been known to spread to people in some epidemics. These animals may ingest contaminated food or water due to bat contamination, and when people come into touch with sick pigs or their tissues, the virus may subsequently be transmitted to them.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0185">37</a>The primary reservoir host of the Nipah and Hendra viruses (HeVs) has been determined to be Pteropid bats.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0235">47</a> This recognition was a significant advancement in understanding of the ecology of these “new” viruses and influenced the development of management plans.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0240">48</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0245">49</a> Further research conducted in Australia by Plowright et al expanded on the ecology of the HeV in pteropid bats.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0250">50</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0255">51</a> Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that some species could serve as more important natural reservoirs than others<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0260">52</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0265">53</a> as shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0005">Fig. 1</a>.Without a doubt, pteropid bats serve as important reservoir hosts for the HeV and NiV.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0270">54</a> The overall number of species is around 60. The body weight of flying foxes varies from 300 g to more than 1 kg, and their wingspan spans from 600 mm to 1.7 m. The world's biggest bats, they use their excellent sense of smell and vision to travel at night instead of echolocating. Every species consumes fruits, flies, or pollen, and shares a tree roost. With their ability to roam hundreds of kilometers, flying foxes are a migratory species. Rottens are shared in areas where the ranges of several species intersect.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275">55</a> Consequently, there is a chance that flying fox populations may interact over a large portion of their worldwide range.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0280">56</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0285">57</a>Nipah virus in livestock and domestic animalsThe NiV mostly infects fruit bats, sometimes known as flying foxes. It may also infect a variety of domestic and livestock animals, however, it is not as frequently seen in these species as it is in people and bats. The NiV is known to use pigs as intermediate hosts. When they eat fruits or other foods tainted with the virus from sick fruit bats, their mouths might become affected as well.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0290">58</a> The virus may then be transferred from infected pigs to people via close contact. Culling sick pigs has been a typical management method in NiV outbreaks to stop the infection from spreading.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180">36</a>Although pigs are the most common species linked to the NiV, other domestic animals including sheep, goats, and cattle may also get the infection. These instances are rather uncommon, however. These animals may get the virus if they come into contact with tainted food or water. NiV infections in dogs and cats have been reported in sporadic occurrences.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0295">59</a> It is believed that these diseases happen when these pets come into touch with contaminated objects or diseased fruit bats. Humans may get the virus from infected pets, but this is not common. The NiV has been found in several instances of infected horses, mostly in Bangladesh and India. Equines that are infected may have symptoms similar to those seen in people, such as dyspnea. Horse infections are believed to originate from tainted feed or water.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0295">59</a>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0300">60</a>Numerous paramyxoviruses exhibit host specificity, with a number of them being harmful to humans. These include NiV, measles, mumps, HeV, and other parainfluenza viruses. NiV may infect a wide variety of animals, including dogs, cats, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, and bats. More henipaviruses have currently been found in small animals in southeast Asia.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0305">61</a> Research on metagenomics and serology suggest that a henipavirus that is being provisionally called Langya virus has infected humans in China.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0310">62</a>Environmental factors and Nipah virus spilloverPathogen overflow into new hosts can lead to anything from asymptomatic illnesses with no cure to pandemics on a global scale. For the purpose of reducing the burden of zoonotic (animal-to-human) illness and averting major outbreaks, it is essential to identify the pathogen spillover factors.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0315">63</a> The force of infection is calculated as the product of reservoir–receiver interactions, pathogen frequency in reservoir populations, and the likelihood of the recipient's infection given contact.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0320">64</a> There are numerous instances that demonstrate how changes in the environment can the force of spillover infections and lower barriers between a varieties of pathogen systems.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0325">65</a> The diversity and density of competent zoonotic hosts can grow as natural ecosystems are transformed into human-modified landscapes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0330">66</a> However, clear linkages between spillover and environmental change have been difficult to uncover due to the large number of ecological, physiological, and behavioral factors that must match, limiting our ability to reliably foresee risk.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0335">67</a>HeV overflow offers a great research system for figuring out how environmental change impacts the force of infection. HeV is a single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Henipavirus and family Paramyxoviridae that circulates in nature and mostly affects Australian Pteropus (flying fox) species as its reservoir. Investigations into the initially identified HeV have been the main focus for nearly 3 decades.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0340">68</a> One theory holds that HeV intermittently sheds in urine due to physiological and/or environmental reasons and continuously infects its hosts.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0345">69</a>“Spillover transmission” describes how a virus spreads from one species to another.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0350">70</a> Numerous contagious diseases exhibit considerable seasonality.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0355">71</a> Seasonal variations in host behavior, contact rates, exposure to pathogens, annual host pulses, births, deaths, and immune status can all have an impact on the seasonality of infectious illnesses in animals.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0360">72</a> However, the seasonality of novel disease outbreaks (also known as spillover events) need not coincide with the seasonally of virus cycling within reservoir hosts. As animals seek seasonal resources, the transmission of viruses from wildlife may be influenced by the seasons. Flying foxes used to roam freely over vast tracts of coastal forests in eastern Australia, feeding on the plentiful fruit, pollen, and/or nectar that could be found there (with species variances in distribution and non-coastal range).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275">55</a>Peak moments for direct encounter between bats or horses may occur depending on changes in the availability of modern resources. Variations in the seasons and climate can also impact how long a virus persists in the environment and how long a window exists for indirect contact. Although the viral load varies, HeV may be continually present in the environment of horses in coastal Queensland and northern New South Wales.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0365">73</a> In accordance with the prevailing hypothesis of bat-to-horse transmission, seasonal conditions may enhance the amount of virus that is available for ingestion.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0370">74</a>Future NiV outbreaks need to be tackled in an all-encompassing, multi-pronged, interdisciplinary manner with regard to the public health effects, on the local to global scale. The capacity to identify, contain, and control the NiV outbreak won't depend on any one area of progress in particular. Research on the behavior of Pteropus bats and the environmental elements that increase the likelihood of spillovers should continue utilizing the One Health approach.Surveillance and early detectionFor the purpose of identifying regions with a high risk of spillover events, NiV antigen and antibody surveillance in humans as well as animals must be carried out. Community-based communication or surveillance will aid in building the public's confidence in healthcare professionals and in the creation of preventative materials that are culturally sensitive. The understanding of medical and non-medical healthcare staff about the NiV will increase for hospitals and clinics, speeding up sample and reaction to stop nosocomial spread as well as direct treatment based on NiV strain differences (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#t0005">Table 1</a>).<elsevierMultimedia ident="t0005"></elsevierMultimedia>The ability to identify novel variations and potential spillover hosts through long-term surveillance, in particular, is a potent tool for averting outbreaks.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0375">75</a> In order to establish culture-centered responses to potential NiV outbreaks, stakeholders in high-risk areas should collaborate with policymakers to urge for additional NiV research and “social, financial, and political commitment” to developing public health treatments.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380">76</a>Enhancing knowledge of NiV transmission and infection in Pteropus bat populations is essential for creating efficient risk management and prevention plans to stop future NiV spillover incidents.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0240">48</a> NiV was discovered in Pteropus medius populations of bats during NiV surveillance conducted in 2015 by the ICMR & NIV Pune in northeast India.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0385">77</a> Between January 2006 and July 2012, researchers in Bangladesh's Pteropus medius bats collected information on host ecology, molecular the field of epidemiology serological dynamics, & viral genetics to better understand spatiotemporal patterns of NiV dynamics.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210">42</a> While the majority of the bats observed carried NiV, they discovered that the causes of Nipah epidemics in Bangladesh included the following: 1) Highly seasonal contact between bats and humans via consumption of raw dates; 2) relatively localized bat movements creating spatially variable transmission dynamics; 3) occasional shedding by previously infected bats due to recrudescence; and<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0020">4</a> multiyear fluctuations in transmission intensity among bats driven by immunity and colony size/density-dependent transmission palm nectar.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210">42</a>Remember that NiV enters host cells via ephrin-B2 and -B3 receptors, giving it a wide host range.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0390">78</a> Mojang virus and other recently discovered henipaviruses have been discovered in rodent hosts. As a result, monitoring domestic and wild mammals in close proximity to high-risk areas is essential to determining the presence of NiV because we do not yet have definitive answers regarding the existence of other transmission routes that use intermediary species to infect humans, similar to how the NiV-M strain infects people via pigs.Finally, it is important to conduct epidemiological surveillance inside human populations. Fruit bats frequent villages in Bangladesh and India, thus clinical samples from persons living in these high-risk areas should be regularly collected and tested.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380">76</a>Case studies and success storiesIn this research, we develop a fractional Caputo-type model to investigate the dynamics of NiV transmission. The model depicts the potential consequences of coming into contact with a dead person who is contagious as a means of spreading this virus. Using the generalized fractional mean value theorem, the area corresponding to the system attributes, such as positivity and boundedness of the solution, is investigated.The NiV replicates once it has entered the vulnerable host through the oro-nasal pathway. The beginning site of replication is unknown because of the nature of the disease, which has only been investigated in human tissue samples at the ultimate stage. However, it is likely that these are the sites of early replication given the large levels of NiV antigen detected in the lymphoid or respiratory organs. NiV incubation times range from 4 to 21 days depending on the strain.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115">23</a> The incubation duration for the Malaysian NiV-M strain is 4 days to 2 months, but the Bangladesh NiV-B strain's incubation period is 6 to 14 days.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025">5</a>Early symptoms such as a fever, headache, or myalgia appear after the incubation period and typically proceed to a high fever, altered sensory perception, and disorientation. Age, concomitant conditions, thrombocytopenia, and a history of seizures are all risk factors for poor NiV outcomes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115">23</a> Additionally, 20% of NiV-associated encephalitis survivors also experience neurological sequelae, such as fatigue, depression, behavioral abnormalities, and seizure problems.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380">76</a>Supportive care, including maintaining fluid balance, breathing and circulation, and electrolyte balance, is the major goal of treatment for NiV-positive patients. Invasive mechanical ventilation is utilized in individuals with acute respiratory failure and severe pneumonia.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115">23</a> Several NiV outbreaks have used supportive therapy with antivirals like ribavirin over the years, although research done in animal models have not demonstrated its effectiveness.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0395">79</a>There may be a way to prevent NiV in those who may have been exposed to it. The host humoral immune response targets viral structural glycoproteins, and the neutralizing antibodies that are generated are essential for conferring vaccine-induced protection. Unfortunately, it can take some time, during which NiV and other viral infections get established in the host. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) can, however, be employed to “jump-start” the humoral immune response, offering early prophylactic protection against a pathogen exposure and preventing NiV from being established in the host. There are monoclonal antibodies against both NiV or HeV, and it has been shown that the human mAb m102.4 shields ferrets and African green monkeys from potentially fatal threats.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0400">80</a>In India, Australia, and the USA, a m102.4 antibody vaccination has been authorized and distributed numerous times for compassionate use for people at high risk of NiV/HeV exposure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025">5</a> Monoclonal antibody research is still ongoing, but one idea is to provide combinations of mAbs that hit several antigenic sites on the F and G NiV glycoproteins to prevent mutations from forming and to extend the neutralization range.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0400">80</a>The high fatality rate and quick development of human NiV infection are well established. In light of this, investigating virus–human interaction from an immunological standpoint has proven difficult. Infection-related humoral immunity (Anti-Nipah IgM and IgG) formation and persistence, as well as the presence of NiV RNA in blood and throat/oro-pharyngeal swab samples, are all supported by the bare minimum of scientific data. There are no vaccines or treatments available right now to prevent or treat this illness. Numerous possible vaccines are being developed, and immunological data from NiV infection survivors serves as the basis for this effort.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115">23</a> During standard follow-up, fresh proof of the transmission of immunological traits from a survivor to her progeny was found. This article elaborates on the newly discovered data and its significance for future attempts to prevent disease, particularly the creation of vaccines, as well as our knowledge of immunity against NiV infection and passive transmission of immunological characteristics.Challenges and future directionsThe One Health strategy for stopping NiV epidemics has a number of obstacles that need for calculated answers. Promoting multidisciplinary collaboration among ecologists, policymakers, veterinarians, and medical experts is a significant problem because these groups sometimes operate in silos because of disparities in methodology and approaches. To overcome this obstacle, regular platforms for communication and multidisciplinary education programmes are required to close the gap. In addition, the virus's variable clinical manifestations and irregular behavior make it difficult to identify Nipah infections in both humans and animals early on. To improve early detection capabilities, standardized reporting mechanisms and sophisticated surveillance technologies are necessary. Moreover, the amalgamation of heterogeneous data sources is an obstacle, necessitating the creation of open-access databases and data-sharing protocols for thorough examination. Another problem is raising community knowledge and engagement; in order to effectively communicate information, local leaders must be involved and culturally sensitive educational efforts must be implemented. Furthermore, insufficient finance and resource distribution impede the execution of One Health initiatives, necessitating the promotion of greater funding and effective resource management. In order to prevent epidemics, vaccinations against the NiV are being developed for both humans and animals. In the event that immunizations are not available, NiV-specific antiviral medications are essential for controlling infections. Targeted preventative techniques are made possible by the study of virus diversity and evolution made possible by genomic surveillance. To fully understand the ecological aspects impacting the spread of the NiV, such as wildlife interactions and climate changes, in-depth environmental studies are required. Enhancing the capability of the healthcare system in impacted areas guarantees prompt diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, highlighting the significance of highly qualified and equipped medical personnel.ConclusionThe current outbreaks of the NiV and the possibility of worldwide pandemics, prevention measures are needed to be given immediate attention. The importance of early detection, integrated data systems, increased community awareness, and overcoming resource restrictions is emphasized on urgent basis. Prospective endeavors ought to give precedence to expedited investigations associated with vaccines and antivirals, enhance genetic monitoring methodologies, carry out comprehensive case analyses, reinforce healthcare infrastructure, and cultivate global cooperation. The policy should be One Health, which offers a precise and proactive framework for the prevention of the NiV.Authors ContributionAll authors have equally contributed.FundingNone." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:16 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2141559" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "as0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1818117" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2141558" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "as0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1818118" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0005" "titulo" => "Introduction to Nipah virus and One Health" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0010" "titulo" => "Nipah virus Transmission" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0015" "titulo" => "The role of bats in Nipah virus reservoir and transmission" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0020" "titulo" => "Nipah virus in livestock and domestic animals" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0025" "titulo" => "Environmental factors and Nipah virus spillover" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0030" "titulo" => "Surveillance and early detection" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0035" "titulo" => "Case studies and success stories" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0040" "titulo" => "Challenges and future directions" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0045" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] 13 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0050" "titulo" => "Authors Contribution" ] 14 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0055" "titulo" => "Funding" ] 15 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2023-11-19" "fechaAceptado" => "2024-02-06" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1818117" "palabras" => array:6 [ 0 => "Nipah virus" 1 => "Zoonotic disease" 2 => "One Health approach" 3 => "Epidemic prevention" 4 => "Early detection" 5 => "Global collaboration" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1818118" "palabras" => array:6 [ 0 => "Virus Nipah" 1 => "Enfermedad zoonótica" 2 => "Un enfoque de salud" 3 => "Prevención de epidemia" 4 => "Detección temprana" 5 => "Colaboración global" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "The Nipah virus (NiV) is a highly lethal disease, resulting in a mortality rate of 75%. Outbreaks have been observed in southeast Asian countries, including Singapore, Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India. As of September 24, 2023, 6 confirmed cases of the NiV had been reported, including 2 fatalities in the Kozhikode District in Northern Kerala, India. In January and February of 2023, this virus sparked an epidemic in Bangladesh. Bats are important hosts for zoonotic viruses such as the NiV, SARS-CoV-2, Ebola virus, and others; nevertheless, relatively little is known about the ecological determinants and dynamics of these viruses' propagation in their reservoir hosts. Therefore, this review assessed early detection, data integration, community awareness, and resource limitations. Moreover, it gives specific future directions, emphasizing the urgency of vaccine and antiviral development, genomic surveillance advancements, case studies, healthcare system reinforcement, and intensified global collaboration. By addressing these issues, the One Health approach emerges as a vital and proactive strategy for NiV prevention, ensuring comprehensive preparedness and response mechanisms against future outbreaks." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "Los brotes de enfermedades zoonóticas son con frecuencia eventos erráticos e inusuales que podrían tener consecuencias catastróficas. Hasta el 24 de septiembre de 2023, se habían notificado seis casos confirmados del virus Nipah (NiV), incluidas dos muertes en el distrito de Kozhikode, en el norte de Kerala, India. En enero y febrero de 2023, este virus provocó una epidemia en Bangladesh. Por lo tanto, es fundamental reflexionar detenidamente sobre este virus antes de que se propague por todo el mundo y se convierta en una pandemia. Los murciélagos son huéspedes importantes de virus zoonóticos como el virus Nipah (NiV), el SARS-CoV-2, el virus del Ébola y otros; sin embargo, se sabe relativamente poco sobre los determinantes ecológicos y la dinámica de la propagación de estos virus en sus reservorios. Esta revisión evaluó la detección temprana, la integración de datos, la conciencia comunitaria y las limitaciones de recursos. Además, brinda direcciones futuras específicas, enfatizando la urgencia del desarrollo de vacunas y antivirales, los avances en la vigilancia genómica, los estudios de casos, el refuerzo del sistema de salud y una colaboración global intensificada. Al abordar estos problemas y aplicar estas estrategias, el enfoque Una Salud emerge como una estrategia vital y proactiva para la prevención del virus Nipah, garantizando mecanismos integrales de preparación y respuesta contra futuros brotes." ] ] "multimedia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1850 "Ancho" => 2766 "Tamanyo" => 271394 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0005" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Potential hosts of Nipah virus and transmission mechanisms." ] ] 1 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "t0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0010" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Surveillance methods</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Clinical surveillance \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Monitoring hospitals for patients with symptoms such as fever, respiratory distress, and encephalitis. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Animal surveillance \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Monitoring and sampling bats, pigs, and other potential reservoirs for signs of Nipah virus. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Syndromic surveillance \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Tracking patterns of symptoms in the population that may indicate a potential outbreak. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Environmental surveillance \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Monitoring environmental factors such as climate, vegetation, and water sources for risk assessment. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Early detection methods</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Laboratory testing \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Rapid diagnostic tests and PCR assays to confirm the presence of Nipah virus in human and animal samples. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Smartphone Apps \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Utilizing mobile applications for reporting symptoms and gathering real-time data for early detection. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">GIS (Geographic information system) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Mapping and analyzing spatial data to identify high-risk areas and plan targeted interventions. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Sentinel animals \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Using specific animal species as indicators for early detection, especially in regions with known Nipah activity. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Monitoring methods</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Public health systems \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Strengthening healthcare infrastructure to facilitate quick identification, reporting, and response to Nipah cases. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Surveillance networks \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Establishing local, national, and international networks for sharing information and coordinating responses. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Data analytics \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Applying advanced analytics to large datasets for pattern recognition and early warning system development. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Community involvement</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Community education \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Raising awareness about Nipah virus, its symptoms, and preventive measures within the community. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Reporting mechanisms \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Encouraging individuals to report symptoms promptly through hotlines, community health workers, or online platforms. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Community health workers \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Training and involving local health workers in active surveillance and reporting in remote areas. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Response and control</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Rapid response teams \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Preparing specialized teams for swift response to identified cases, including isolation and treatment measures. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Vaccination programs \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Implementing vaccination campaigns for at-risk populations, especially in areas with a history of Nipah outbreaks. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Communication strategies \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Developing effective communication plans to disseminate information, guidelines, and updates to the public. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">International collaboration \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Collaborating with neighboring countries and global health organizations for a coordinated and comprehensive response. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3530330.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "Surveillance and early detection of Nipah virus." ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:80 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bb0005" "etiqueta" => "1." 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Review article

One Health approach to Nipah virus prevention

Un enfoque de salud Para la prevención del virus Nipah

Muhammad Safdara,

Corresponding author

msafdar@cuvas.edu.pk

Corresponding authors.

, Shafeeq ur Rehmanb, Muhammad Younusc, Muhammad Arif Rizwand, Muhammad Kaleemd, Mehmet Ozaslane

a Department of Breeding and Genetics, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

b Department of Microbiology, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

c Department of Zoolgy, Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

d Cholistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences-Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

e Department of Biology, Division of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey

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        "titulo" => "Un enfoque de salud Para la prevenci&#243;n del virus Nipah"
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          "en" => "<p id="sp0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Potential hosts of Nipah virus and transmission mechanisms&#46;</p>"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="s0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0025">Introduction to Nipah virus and One Health</span><p id="p0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Recently&#44; as of September 24&#44; 2023&#44; there have been 6 documented cases of Nipah virus &#40;NiV&#41;&#44; resulting in 2 fatalities&#46; These incidents have exclusively occurred within Kozhikode District in Northern Kerala&#44; India&#46; In the neighbor country&#44; Bangladesh&#44; this virus caused an epidemic in January and February of 2023<span class="elsevierStyleBold"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#46;</span></span> Therefore&#44; it is important to consider this virus seriously before it gets pandemic status in the world&#46;</p><p id="p0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Zoonotic disease outbreaks are often unpredictable&#44; random&#44; and infrequent occurrences that might have disastrous effects&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The Nipah virus &#40;NiV&#41;&#44; SARS-CoV-2&#44; Ebola virus&#44; and other zoonotic viruses all have significant hosts in bats&#59; nevertheless&#44; relatively little is known about the ecological factors and dynamics of these viruses&#39; proliferation in their reservoir hosts&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> The NiV is a zoonotic virus that may infect people via animals&#44; both domestic and wild&#46; The NiV&#39;s natural host is the Pteropodidae family of fruit bats&#46; Infection with NiV might be asymptomatic but it can also result in encephalitis and an acute respiratory disease&#46; Negative-sense RNA viruses that are enclosed and non-segmented belong to the family Paramyxoviridae&#46; Six structural proteins are encoded in their genomes&#58; nucleocapsid &#40;N&#41;&#44; matrix protein &#40;M&#41;&#44; large protein or RNA polymerase &#40;L&#41;&#44; glycoprotein or receptor-binding protein &#40;G&#41;&#44; fusion protein &#40;F&#41;&#44; phosphoprotein &#40;P&#41;&#44; and glycoprotein &#40;G&#41;&#46; The estimated case death rate is 40&#37;&#8211;75&#37; or more&#44; and it varies according to the particular strain of NiV&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> the quality and availability of health care&#44; or the degree of disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> Neither human nor animal vaccinations nor explicitly authorized therapies are currently available for NiV infection&#46;</p><p id="p0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">NiV outbreaks have only been reported in Asia so far&#46; Pig farmers in the Malaysian town of Sungai Nipah were engaged in the initial epidemic&#44; which was documented in 1998&#8211;1999&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> In 1998&#44; there was an outbreak of neurological and respiratory infections on pig farms in Peninsular Malaysia&#46; This outbreak led to 265 human cases and 108 deaths&#44; which were the first reported cases of NiV infection&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> The virus was isolated in 1999&#44; the year that followed&#46; Due to this epidemic&#44; a million pigs had to be culled&#46; NiV cases were documented in 2001 in Siliguri&#44; India&#44; and Meherpur District&#44; Bangladesh&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> In the years 2003&#44; 2004&#44; and 2005&#44; the epidemic resurfaced in the districts of Naogaon&#44; Manikganj&#44; Rajbari&#44; Faridpur&#44; and Tangail&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> There were further epidemics in Bangladesh in the years that followed&#46; The NiV reappeared in Kerala&#44; India in September 2021&#44; killing a 12-year-old kid&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> The NiV most recently caused an epidemic in Bangladesh in January and February of 2023 <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#8220;Nipah virus infection &#8211; Bangladesh&#8221;&#46; who&#46;int&#46; Retrieved 2023-07-19&#46;</span></p><p id="p0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Peninsular Malaysian piggeries and bat habitats are considered to be increasingly overlapping&#44; which is the reason for the NiV&#39;s transfer from flying foxes to pigs&#46; Fruit orchards and the piggery were near at hand at the index farm&#44; which allowed urine&#44; feces&#44; and half-eaten fruit to fall upon the pigs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Past research indicates that there might have been unreported viral spillover into pigs in Malaysia since 1996&#46; In 1998&#44; virus propagation was facilitated by the movement of diseased pigs to neighboring farms&#44; which led to fresh outbreaks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> NiV strains are categorized into 2 clades based on changes in the sequencing of either the complete or partial nucleocapsid &#40;N&#41; gene &#40;Clade I&#58; NiV-B in Bangladesh and India&#44; and Clade II&#58; NiV-M in Malaysia&#41;&#46; This shows that NiV was introduced into these nations in 2 different ways&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> The 2 strains vary in clinical characteristics and modes of transmission in Malaysia and India&#47;Bangladesh&#44; although having more than 92&#37; genetic similarity and amino acid homology&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> Two different NiV-M subclades that are spreading in northern and southern Malaysia were also verified by phylogenetic analysis&#59; these subclades most likely come from different hosts&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p><p id="p0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The bronchiole epithelial cells may be used to identify viruses during the first stages of sickness&#46; In the bronchi and alveoli of experimental animal models&#44; viral antigens have been observed&#46; Later on in the disease&#44; the virus may also be detected in the blood and lung endothelial&#44; either unbound or attached to the host&#39;s leukocytes&#46; The patient eventually has multiple organ failure as a result of the virus attacking their brain&#44; lungs&#44; spleen&#44; and kidneys&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> For both NiV clades&#44; ephrin-B2 &#40;EFNB2&#41; and ephrin-B3 &#40;EFNB3&#41; have been documented to be the primary functional receptors&#46; Henipaviruses have a broad host range&#44; which may be explained by the existence of these receptors in several animals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a></p><p id="p0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Since NiV is classified as a Risk Group 4 pathogen&#44; certain containment and obstacle prevention procedures must be followed while handling specimens harboring NiV&#46; This includes those working with samples in laboratories&#44; medical staff tending to possibly contaminated patients&#44; and anybody handling deceased corpses&#46; BSL-4 facilities are necessary for the propagation&#44; isolation&#44; quantification&#44; and neutralization of viruses&#46; When exposed to local ambient conditions&#44; NiV may persist in some fruit juices or fruits for up to 3 days&#44; demonstrating its relative stability&#46; When date palm sap is stored at 22&#8239;&#176;C&#44; it may stay contagious for at least 7 days&#46; For an hour&#44; it stays viable at 70&#8239;&#176;C&#46; On the other hand&#44; heating it to 100&#8239;&#176;C for more than 15&#8239;min will fully deactivate it&#46; NiV may be rendered inactive by cleansers&#44; detergents&#44; and sodium hypochlorite &#40;10&#8239;000&#8239;ppm&#41; because of its enveloped nature&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> NiV infectivity in serum and plasma was reported to be effectively reduced by using UV-C and medium-base lights&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> in conjunction with heating&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> Further details on techniques for inactivating NiV-contaminated material may be found in Widerspick et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a></p><p id="p0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Three countries have reported single or sporadic recurrent outbreaks since the original recognition&#58; India &#40;2001&#44; 2007&#44; 2018&#44; 2019&#44; 2021&#41;&#44; the Philippines in 2014&#44; and Bangladesh &#40;first epidemic in 2001&#44; followed by 9 outbreaks till 2010 and 2011&#41;&#46; The most probable origins of infection in Bangladesh and India were fruits or fruit derivatives contaminated with fruit bat feces or urine <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus">https&#58;&#47;&#47;www&#46;who&#46;int&#47;news-room&#47;fact-sheets&#47;detail&#47;nipah-virus</a>&#46; Also reported were reports of human-to-human transfer&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> The 3 most often reported methods of human-to-equine transmission in the Philippines were eating raw or undercooked horse meat&#44; coming into touch with contaminated items while ill horses were being slaughtered&#44; and direct contact with diseased animals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a></p><p id="p0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It has been shown that the primary NiV receptors are ephrins B2 and B3&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> The expression of ephrin subtypes varies widely across the body&#44; with the B3 subtype being especially highly expressed in some forebrain subregions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> There is an immediate demand for a One Health strategy on a global scale owing to the thousands of children and adults who die every day due to illnesses that go undiagnosed and arise at the human&#8211;animal&#8211;environment interface&#44; as well as the rapid expansion of the human population and environmental alterations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> In order to change morbidity patterns&#44; healthcare usage&#44; and behavior of specific groups&#44; One Health strategy necessitates a multifaceted field of effort employing individual&#44; organizational&#44; and cultural interventions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p><p id="p0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The &#8220;One Health&#8221; idea may be used to encourage and improve the health of humans and animals via creative partnerships&#44; collaborations&#44; and research&#47;surveillance&#47;control programs&#46; To protect the health of people and their companion animals&#44; it is imperative that the latest developments in diagnostics and therapeutics be fully investigated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28&#8211;30</span></a></p><p id="p0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">75&#37; of newly developing infectious illnesses are zoonotic&#44; the significance of this kind of approach is especially clear in the area of infectious diseases&#46; One example of the need of a One Health strategy is NiV&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> Over a million pigs had to be culled as a result of the first reported epidemic in Malaysia in 1998&#44; which claimed the lives of 105 people&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> When an individual contracts the virus&#44; they may first experience fever&#44; headaches&#44; and vomiting&#46; If left untreated&#44; these symptoms may worsen and lead to respiratory illnesses&#44; encephalitis&#44; and often even death&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> NiV outbreaks with an average death rate of 74&#46;5&#37; were also first documented in Bangladesh in 2001 and continued roughly yearly afterward&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> Large fruit bats known as flying foxes are the natural reservoir hosts of NiV&#59; nevertheless&#44; they do not seem to exhibit symptoms of illness when infected&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> A major contributing component to NiV epidemics is the interplay between people&#44; animals&#44; and the environment&#46; The habitats of humans and bats are increasingly overlapping in Bangladesh due to deforestation and urbanization in certain regions&#46; This overlap might raise the possibility of &#8220;spillover&#8221; occurrences&#44; when NiV crosses the species barrier and infects humans&#44; by encouraging encounters between humans and bats&#46; NiV&#44; for instance&#44; may be spread on fruit that sick bats reject&#46; When domesticated animals eat this fruit&#44; they may act as a vector for the spread of NiV to humans&#46; NiV may spread from person-to-person once infected&#44; potentially leading to local epidemics&#46; Although vaccinations have the potential to be an effective means of immediately preventing and containing NiV outbreaks in Bangladesh and elsewhere&#44; their usefulness must be weighed against the ecological complications of the disease&#39;s spread&#44; such as deforestation&#44; interactions between humans and bats&#44; and human-to-human transmission&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> Therefore&#44; this review underscores the critical need for early detection&#44; community awareness&#44; and global collaboration to address the lethal NiV&#44; emphasizing urgent efforts in vaccine development and healthcare system reinforcement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> The One Health approach emerges as a proactive strategy&#44; ensuring comprehensive preparedness against future outbreaks&#46;</p></span><span id="s0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0030">Nipah virus Transmission</span><p id="p0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fruit bats serve as the NiV&#39;s natural reservoir hosts&#46; They are capable of carrying the infection without exhibiting symptoms&#46; They often have the NiV in their feces&#44; urine&#44; and saliva&#46; Domesticated animals&#44; such as pigs&#44; are often the intermediate hosts via which the NiV spreads to people during epidemics&#46; These animals may get the virus if they eat fruits or other foodstuffs tainted with bat urine or saliva&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> The viral load may then be increased by using infected pigs as amplifying hosts&#46; When humans come into close proximity to diseased bats or their polluted surroundings&#44; the NiV may also spread from bats to people directly&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a></p><p id="p0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There are a few documented outbreaks of NiV in Asia&#46; It first originated in 1998 after a pig farmer epidemic in the Malaysian town of Sungai Nipah&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> A further incident occurred in Singapore in March 1999&#44; involving 11 personnel in the slaughterhouse who were connected to pigs shipped from a Malaysian farm that had the NiV&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> These 2 outbreaks resulted in the reporting of 246 cases in all&#46; Workers in abattoirs and pig farmers were recognized as the high-risk category&#46; The transportation of fruit bats from Indonesia to other regions of southeast Asia was thought to have been caused by a time of massive forest burning for agricultural purposes&#44; which was thought to be the fundamental cause of the geographical expansion of NiV reservoir hosts&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p><p id="p0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The trends of NiV circulation in bats and the potential pathways for the virus to spread to domestic animals are still mostly unclear&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> It is yet unknown how other bat species&#44; outside Pteropid bats&#44; contribute to the spread of NiV&#46; The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Rousettus aegyptiacus</span> is the only fruit bat found in Europe&#44; is incapable of supporting NiV replication in experiments&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> The Daubenton&#39;s bat &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Myotis daubentonii</span>&#41;&#44; an insectivorous bat species that is common across Europe and portions of Asia&#44; was discovered to have henipavirus antibodies in China&#46; However&#44; no particular RNA was found&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> Bats shed viruses cyclically&#44; which is caused by immunological &#40;waning protection&#44; stress during pregnancy&#41; and demographic &#40;population turnover&#44; migration of infected bats&#41; causes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a></p><p id="p0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Animals may get NiV via eating contaminated fruit that has been contaminated by fruit bat saliva or urine<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> or by consuming meat that has been infected&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> Close contact with other animals that are contaminated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> In animal models&#44; rectal shedding of live virus has been shown&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> Merely consuming raw or undercooked meat from contaminated animals&#44; or consuming food products contaminated by the body fluids of contaminated animals may transmit NiV infection&#46; Urine&#44; saliva&#44; blood&#44; pharyngeal&#44; and respiratory secretions&#44; as well as excretions and secretions from infected wild or domesticated animals&#44; may all directly expose people to NiV infection&#46; Consideration should also be given to virus-containing aerosols spreading to people&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a></p><p id="p0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It has also been shown that family members and caregivers of sick patients may get the NiV from one person to another&#46; The NiV was directly transmitted from person to person during the subsequent epidemics in Bangladesh and India via intimate contact with bodily fluids and excretions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> as shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0005">Fig&#46; 1</a><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#46;</span> In 2001&#44; there were reports of viral transmission in a medical environment in Siliguri&#44; India&#44; with 75&#37; of infections occurring among visitors or hospital employees&#46; Approximately&#44; 50&#37; of instances that were recorded in Bangladesh between 2001 and 2008 were from treating patients who were infected by other people <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/nipah-virus">https&#58;&#47;&#47;www&#46;who&#46;int&#47;news-room&#47;fact-sheets&#47;detail&#47;nipah-virus</a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="f0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="s0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0035">The role of bats in Nipah virus reservoir and transmission</span><p id="p0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The reservoir and transmission cycle of the NiV are significantly influenced by bats&#46; Bat populations aid in the continuance of the virus&#46; Bats that are infected have the ability to excrete and secrete the virus&#44; which may contaminate their roost and feeding grounds&#46; This is one method by which bat populations get infected with the virus&#46; There are several methods by which the NiV may spread from bats to people&#46; Infected bats or their body fluids may infect anyone who comes into close touch with them&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> This may happen if people come into contact with bats&#44; touch them&#44; eat fruits&#44; or other food that has been contaminated by bat urine or saliva&#44; or go into caves or other places where bats live&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> Pigs are examples of intermediate hosts through which the NiV has been known to spread to people in some epidemics&#46; These animals may ingest contaminated food or water due to bat contamination&#44; and when people come into touch with sick pigs or their tissues&#44; the virus may subsequently be transmitted to them&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a></p><p id="p0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The primary reservoir host of the Nipah and Hendra viruses &#40;HeVs&#41; has been determined to be Pteropid bats&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> This recognition was a significant advancement in understanding of the ecology of these &#8220;new&#8221; viruses and influenced the development of management plans&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> Further research conducted in Australia by Plowright et al expanded on the ecology of the HeV in pteropid bats&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a> Furthermore&#44; there is evidence to suggest that some species could serve as more important natural reservoirs than others<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a> as shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0005">Fig&#46; 1</a><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#46;</span></p><p id="p0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Without a doubt&#44; pteropid bats serve as important reservoir hosts for the HeV and NiV&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> The overall number of species is around 60&#46; The body weight of flying foxes varies from 300&#8239;g to more than 1&#8239;kg&#44; and their wingspan spans from 600&#8239;mm to 1&#46;7&#8239;m&#46; The world&#39;s biggest bats&#44; they use their excellent sense of smell and vision to travel at night instead of echolocating&#46; Every species consumes fruits&#44; flies&#44; or pollen&#44; and shares a tree roost&#46; With their ability to roam hundreds of kilometers&#44; flying foxes are a migratory species&#46; Rottens are shared in areas where the ranges of several species intersect&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a> Consequently&#44; there is a chance that flying fox populations may interact over a large portion of their worldwide range&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span></a></p></span><span id="s0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0040">Nipah virus in livestock and domestic animals</span><p id="p0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The NiV mostly infects fruit bats&#44; sometimes known as flying foxes&#46; It may also infect a variety of domestic and livestock animals&#44; however&#44; it is not as frequently seen in these species as it is in people and bats&#46; The NiV is known to use pigs as intermediate hosts&#46; When they eat fruits or other foods tainted with the virus from sick fruit bats&#44; their mouths might become affected as well&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a> The virus may then be transferred from infected pigs to people via close contact&#46; Culling sick pigs has been a typical management method in NiV outbreaks to stop the infection from spreading&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p><p id="p0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although pigs are the most common species linked to the NiV&#44; other domestic animals including sheep&#44; goats&#44; and cattle may also get the infection&#46; These instances are rather uncommon&#44; however&#46; These animals may get the virus if they come into contact with tainted food or water&#46; NiV infections in dogs and cats have been reported in sporadic occurrences&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a> It is believed that these diseases happen when these pets come into touch with contaminated objects or diseased fruit bats&#46; Humans may get the virus from infected pets&#44; but this is not common&#46; The NiV has been found in several instances of infected horses&#44; mostly in Bangladesh and India&#46; Equines that are infected may have symptoms similar to those seen in people&#44; such as dyspnea&#46; Horse infections are believed to originate from tainted feed or water&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#44;</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a></p><p id="p0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Numerous paramyxoviruses exhibit host specificity&#44; with a number of them being harmful to humans&#46; These include NiV&#44; measles&#44; mumps&#44; HeV&#44; and other parainfluenza viruses&#46; NiV may infect a wide variety of animals&#44; including dogs&#44; cats&#44; horses&#44; pigs&#44; sheep&#44; goats&#44; and bats&#46; More henipaviruses have currently been found in small animals in southeast Asia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a> Research on metagenomics and serology suggest that a henipavirus that is being provisionally called Langya virus has infected humans in China&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a></p></span><span id="s0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0045">Environmental factors and Nipah virus spillover</span><p id="p0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pathogen overflow into new hosts can lead to anything from asymptomatic illnesses with no cure to pandemics on a global scale&#46; For the purpose of reducing the burden of zoonotic &#40;animal-to-human&#41; illness and averting major outbreaks&#44; it is essential to identify the pathogen spillover factors&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> The force of infection is calculated as the product of reservoir&#8211;receiver interactions&#44; pathogen frequency in reservoir populations&#44; and the likelihood of the recipient&#39;s infection given contact&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a> There are numerous instances that demonstrate how changes in the environment can the force of spillover infections and lower barriers between a varieties of pathogen systems&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a> The diversity and density of competent zoonotic hosts can grow as natural ecosystems are transformed into human-modified landscapes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a> However&#44; clear linkages between spillover and environmental change have been difficult to uncover due to the large number of ecological&#44; physiological&#44; and behavioral factors that must match&#44; limiting our ability to reliably foresee risk&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a></p><p id="p0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">HeV overflow offers a great research system for figuring out how environmental change impacts the force of infection&#46; HeV is a single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Henipavirus and family Paramyxoviridae that circulates in nature and mostly affects Australian Pteropus &#40;flying fox&#41; species as its reservoir&#46; Investigations into the initially identified HeV have been the main focus for nearly 3 decades&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> One theory holds that HeV intermittently sheds in urine due to physiological and&#47;or environmental reasons and continuously infects its hosts&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">69</span></a></p><p id="p0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;Spillover transmission&#8221; describes how a virus spreads from one species to another&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">70</span></a> Numerous contagious diseases exhibit considerable seasonality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">71</span></a> Seasonal variations in host behavior&#44; contact rates&#44; exposure to pathogens&#44; annual host pulses&#44; births&#44; deaths&#44; and immune status can all have an impact on the seasonality of infectious illnesses in animals&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a> However&#44; the seasonality of novel disease outbreaks &#40;also known as spillover events&#41; need not coincide with the seasonally of virus cycling within reservoir hosts&#46; As animals seek seasonal resources&#44; the transmission of viruses from wildlife may be influenced by the seasons&#46; Flying foxes used to roam freely over vast tracts of coastal forests in eastern Australia&#44; feeding on the plentiful fruit&#44; pollen&#44; and&#47;or nectar that could be found there &#40;with species variances in distribution and non-coastal range&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a></p><p id="p0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Peak moments for direct encounter between bats or horses may occur depending on changes in the availability of modern resources&#46; Variations in the seasons and climate can also impact how long a virus persists in the environment and how long a window exists for indirect contact&#46; Although the viral load varies&#44; HeV may be continually present in the environment of horses in coastal Queensland and northern New South Wales&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">73</span></a> In accordance with the prevailing hypothesis of bat-to-horse transmission&#44; seasonal conditions may enhance the amount of virus that is available for ingestion&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74</span></a></p><p id="p0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Future NiV outbreaks need to be tackled in an all-encompassing&#44; multi-pronged&#44; interdisciplinary manner with regard to the public health effects&#44; on the local to global scale&#46; The capacity to identify&#44; contain&#44; and control the NiV outbreak won&#39;t depend on any one area of progress in particular&#46; Research on the behavior of Pteropus bats and the environmental elements that increase the likelihood of spillovers should continue utilizing the One Health approach&#46;</p></span><span id="s0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0050">Surveillance and early detection</span><p id="p0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the purpose of identifying regions with a high risk of spillover events&#44; NiV antigen and antibody surveillance in humans as well as animals must be carried out&#46; Community-based communication or surveillance will aid in building the public&#39;s confidence in healthcare professionals and in the creation of preventative materials that are culturally sensitive&#46; The understanding of medical and non-medical healthcare staff about the NiV will increase for hospitals and clinics&#44; speeding up sample and reaction to stop nosocomial spread as well as direct treatment based on NiV strain differences &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#t0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="t0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="p0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The ability to identify novel variations and potential spillover hosts through long-term surveillance&#44; in particular&#44; is a potent tool for averting outbreaks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> In order to establish culture-centered responses to potential NiV outbreaks&#44; stakeholders in high-risk areas should collaborate with policymakers to urge for additional NiV research and &#8220;social&#44; financial&#44; and political commitment&#8221; to developing public health treatments&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a></p><p id="p0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Enhancing knowledge of NiV transmission and infection in Pteropus bat populations is essential for creating efficient risk management and prevention plans to stop future NiV spillover incidents&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a> NiV was discovered in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Pteropus medius</span> populations of bats during NiV surveillance conducted in 2015 by the ICMR &#38; NIV Pune in northeast India&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a> Between January 2006 and July 2012&#44; researchers in Bangladesh&#39;s <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Pteropus medius</span> bats collected information on host ecology&#44; molecular the field of epidemiology serological dynamics&#44; &#38; viral genetics to better understand spatiotemporal patterns of NiV dynamics&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> While the majority of the bats observed carried NiV&#44; they discovered that the causes of Nipah epidemics in Bangladesh included the following&#58; 1&#41; Highly seasonal contact between bats and humans via consumption of raw dates&#59; 2&#41; relatively localized bat movements creating spatially variable transmission dynamics&#59; 3&#41; occasional shedding by previously infected bats due to recrudescence&#59; and<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> multiyear fluctuations in transmission intensity among bats driven by immunity and colony size&#47;density-dependent transmission palm nectar&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a></p><p id="p0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Remember that NiV enters host cells via ephrin-B2 and -B3 receptors&#44; giving it a wide host range&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> Mojang virus and other recently discovered henipaviruses have been discovered in rodent hosts&#46; As a result&#44; monitoring domestic and wild mammals in close proximity to high-risk areas is essential to determining the presence of NiV because we do not yet have definitive answers regarding the existence of other transmission routes that use intermediary species to infect humans&#44; similar to how the NiV-M strain infects people via pigs&#46;</p><p id="p0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; it is important to conduct epidemiological surveillance inside human populations&#46; Fruit bats frequent villages in Bangladesh and India&#44; thus clinical samples from persons living in these high-risk areas should be regularly collected and tested&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a></p></span><span id="s0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0055">Case studies and success stories</span><p id="p0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this research&#44; we develop a fractional Caputo-type model to investigate the dynamics of NiV transmission&#46; The model depicts the potential consequences of coming into contact with a dead person who is contagious as a means of spreading this virus&#46; Using the generalized fractional mean value theorem&#44; the area corresponding to the system attributes&#44; such as positivity and boundedness of the solution&#44; is investigated&#46;</p><p id="p0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The NiV replicates once it has entered the vulnerable host through the oro-nasal pathway&#46; The beginning site of replication is unknown because of the nature of the disease&#44; which has only been investigated in human tissue samples at the ultimate stage&#46; However&#44; it is likely that these are the sites of early replication given the large levels of NiV antigen detected in the lymphoid or respiratory organs&#46; NiV incubation times range from 4 to 21 days depending on the strain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> The incubation duration for the Malaysian NiV-M strain is 4&#8239;days to 2&#8239;months&#44; but the Bangladesh NiV-B strain&#39;s incubation period is 6 to 14&#8239;days&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="p0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Early symptoms such as a fever&#44; headache&#44; or myalgia appear after the incubation period and typically proceed to a high fever&#44; altered sensory perception&#44; and disorientation&#46; Age&#44; concomitant conditions&#44; thrombocytopenia&#44; and a history of seizures are all risk factors for poor NiV outcomes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Additionally&#44; 20&#37; of NiV-associated encephalitis survivors also experience neurological sequelae&#44; such as fatigue&#44; depression&#44; behavioral abnormalities&#44; and seizure problems&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a></p><p id="p0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Supportive care&#44; including maintaining fluid balance&#44; breathing and circulation&#44; and electrolyte balance&#44; is the major goal of treatment for NiV-positive patients&#46; Invasive mechanical ventilation is utilized in individuals with acute respiratory failure and severe pneumonia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Several NiV outbreaks have used supportive therapy with antivirals like ribavirin over the years&#44; although research done in animal models have not demonstrated its effectiveness&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a></p><p id="p0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There may be a way to prevent NiV in those who may have been exposed to it&#46; The host humoral immune response targets viral structural glycoproteins&#44; and the neutralizing antibodies that are generated are essential for conferring vaccine-induced protection&#46; Unfortunately&#44; it can take some time&#44; during which NiV and other viral infections get established in the host&#46; Monoclonal antibodies &#40;mAbs&#41; can&#44; however&#44; be employed to &#8220;jump-start&#8221; the humoral immune response&#44; offering early prophylactic protection against a pathogen exposure and preventing NiV from being established in the host&#46; There are monoclonal antibodies against both NiV or HeV&#44; and it has been shown that the human mAb m102&#46;4 shields ferrets and African green monkeys from potentially fatal threats&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a></p><p id="p0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In India&#44; Australia&#44; and the USA&#44; a m102&#46;4 antibody vaccination has been authorized and distributed numerous times for compassionate use for people at high risk of NiV&#47;HeV exposure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> Monoclonal antibody research is still ongoing&#44; but one idea is to provide combinations of mAbs that hit several antigenic sites on the F and G NiV glycoproteins to prevent mutations from forming and to extend the neutralization range&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a></p><p id="p0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The high fatality rate and quick development of human NiV infection are well established&#46; In light of this&#44; investigating virus&#8211;human interaction from an immunological standpoint has proven difficult&#46; Infection-related humoral immunity &#40;Anti-Nipah IgM and IgG&#41; formation and persistence&#44; as well as the presence of NiV RNA in blood and throat&#47;oro-pharyngeal swab samples&#44; are all supported by the bare minimum of scientific data&#46; There are no vaccines or treatments available right now to prevent or treat this illness&#46; Numerous possible vaccines are being developed&#44; and immunological data from NiV infection survivors serves as the basis for this effort&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> During standard follow-up&#44; fresh proof of the transmission of immunological traits from a survivor to her progeny was found&#46; This article elaborates on the newly discovered data and its significance for future attempts to prevent disease&#44; particularly the creation of vaccines&#44; as well as our knowledge of immunity against NiV infection and passive transmission of immunological characteristics&#46;</p></span><span id="s0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0060">Challenges and future directions</span><p id="p0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The One Health strategy for stopping NiV epidemics has a number of obstacles that need for calculated answers&#46; Promoting multidisciplinary collaboration among ecologists&#44; policymakers&#44; veterinarians&#44; and medical experts is a significant problem because these groups sometimes operate in silos because of disparities in methodology and approaches&#46; To overcome this obstacle&#44; regular platforms for communication and multidisciplinary education programmes are required to close the gap&#46; In addition&#44; the virus&#39;s variable clinical manifestations and irregular behavior make it difficult to identify Nipah infections in both humans and animals early on&#46; To improve early detection capabilities&#44; standardized reporting mechanisms and sophisticated surveillance technologies are necessary&#46; Moreover&#44; the amalgamation of heterogeneous data sources is an obstacle&#44; necessitating the creation of open-access databases and data-sharing protocols for thorough examination&#46; Another problem is raising community knowledge and engagement&#59; in order to effectively communicate information&#44; local leaders must be involved and culturally sensitive educational efforts must be implemented&#46; Furthermore&#44; insufficient finance and resource distribution impede the execution of One Health initiatives&#44; necessitating the promotion of greater funding and effective resource management&#46; In order to prevent epidemics&#44; vaccinations against the NiV are being developed for both humans and animals&#46; In the event that immunizations are not available&#44; NiV-specific antiviral medications are essential for controlling infections&#46; Targeted preventative techniques are made possible by the study of virus diversity and evolution made possible by genomic surveillance&#46; To fully understand the ecological aspects impacting the spread of the NiV&#44; such as wildlife interactions and climate changes&#44; in-depth environmental studies are required&#46; Enhancing the capability of the healthcare system in impacted areas guarantees prompt diagnosis&#44; treatment&#44; and prevention&#44; highlighting the significance of highly qualified and equipped medical personnel&#46;</p></span><span id="s0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0065">Conclusion</span><p id="p0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The current outbreaks of the NiV and the possibility of worldwide pandemics&#44; prevention measures are needed to be given immediate attention&#46; The importance of early detection&#44; integrated data systems&#44; increased community awareness&#44; and overcoming resource restrictions is emphasized on urgent basis&#46; Prospective endeavors ought to give precedence to expedited investigations associated with vaccines and antivirals&#44; enhance genetic monitoring methodologies&#44; carry out comprehensive case analyses&#44; reinforce healthcare infrastructure&#44; and cultivate global cooperation&#46; The policy should be One Health&#44; which offers a precise and proactive framework for the prevention of the NiV&#46;</p></span><span id="s0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0070">Authors Contribution</span><p id="p0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">All authors have equally contributed&#46;</p></span><span id="s0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0075">Funding</span><p id="p0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">None&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Introduction to Nipah virus and One Health"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="as0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="sp0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The Nipah virus &#40;NiV&#41; is a highly lethal disease&#44; resulting in a mortality rate of 75&#37;&#46; Outbreaks have been observed in southeast Asian countries&#44; including Singapore&#44; Malaysia&#44; Bangladesh&#44; and India&#46; As of September 24&#44; 2023&#44; 6 confirmed cases of the NiV had been reported&#44; including 2 fatalities in the Kozhikode District in Northern Kerala&#44; India&#46; In January and February of 2023&#44; this virus sparked an epidemic in Bangladesh&#46; Bats are important hosts for zoonotic viruses such as the NiV&#44; SARS-CoV-2&#44; Ebola virus&#44; and others&#59; nevertheless&#44; relatively little is known about the ecological determinants and dynamics of these viruses&#39; propagation in their reservoir hosts&#46; Therefore&#44; this review assessed early detection&#44; data integration&#44; community awareness&#44; and resource limitations&#46; Moreover&#44; it gives specific future directions&#44; emphasizing the urgency of vaccine and antiviral development&#44; genomic surveillance advancements&#44; case studies&#44; healthcare system reinforcement&#44; and intensified global collaboration&#46; By addressing these issues&#44; the One Health approach emerges as a vital and proactive strategy for NiV prevention&#44; ensuring comprehensive preparedness and response mechanisms against future outbreaks&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="as0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="sp0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los brotes de enfermedades zoon&#243;ticas son con frecuencia eventos err&#225;ticos e inusuales que podr&#237;an tener consecuencias catastr&#243;ficas&#46; Hasta el 24 de septiembre de 2023&#44; se hab&#237;an notificado seis casos confirmados del virus Nipah &#40;NiV&#41;&#44; incluidas dos muertes en el distrito de Kozhikode&#44; en el norte de Kerala&#44; India&#46; En enero y febrero de 2023&#44; este virus provoc&#243; una epidemia en Bangladesh&#46; Por lo tanto&#44; es fundamental reflexionar detenidamente sobre este virus antes de que se propague por todo el mundo y se convierta en una pandemia&#46; Los murci&#233;lagos son hu&#233;spedes importantes de virus zoon&#243;ticos como el virus Nipah &#40;NiV&#41;&#44; el SARS-CoV-2&#44; el virus del &#201;bola y otros&#59; sin embargo&#44; se sabe relativamente poco sobre los determinantes ecol&#243;gicos y la din&#225;mica de la propagaci&#243;n de estos virus en sus reservorios&#46; Esta revisi&#243;n evalu&#243; la detecci&#243;n temprana&#44; la integraci&#243;n de datos&#44; la conciencia comunitaria y las limitaciones de recursos&#46; Adem&#225;s&#44; brinda direcciones futuras espec&#237;ficas&#44; enfatizando la urgencia del desarrollo de vacunas y antivirales&#44; los avances en la vigilancia gen&#243;mica&#44; los estudios de casos&#44; el refuerzo del sistema de salud y una colaboraci&#243;n global intensificada&#46; Al abordar estos problemas y aplicar estas estrategias&#44; el enfoque Una Salud emerge como una estrategia vital y proactiva para la prevenci&#243;n del virus Nipah&#44; garantizando mecanismos integrales de preparaci&#243;n y respuesta contra futuros brotes&#46;</p></span>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Surveillance methods</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Clinical surveillance&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Monitoring hospitals for patients with symptoms such as fever&#44; respiratory distress&#44; and encephalitis&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Animal surveillance&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Monitoring and sampling bats&#44; pigs&#44; and other potential reservoirs for signs of Nipah virus&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Syndromic surveillance&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Tracking patterns of symptoms in the population that may indicate a potential outbreak&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Environmental surveillance&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Monitoring environmental factors such as climate&#44; vegetation&#44; and water sources for risk assessment&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Early detection methods</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">Laboratory testing&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Rapid diagnostic tests and PCR assays to confirm the presence of Nipah virus in human and animal samples&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Smartphone Apps&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Utilizing mobile applications for reporting symptoms and gathering real-time data for early detection&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">GIS &#40;Geographic information system&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Mapping and analyzing spatial data to identify high-risk areas and plan targeted interventions&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Sentinel animals&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Using specific animal species as indicators for early detection&#44; especially in regions with known Nipah activity&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Monitoring methods</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Public health systems&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Strengthening healthcare infrastructure to facilitate quick identification&#44; reporting&#44; and response to Nipah cases&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Surveillance networks&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Establishing local&#44; national&#44; and international networks for sharing information and coordinating responses&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Data analytics&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Applying advanced analytics to large datasets for pattern recognition and early warning system development&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Community involvement</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Community education&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Raising awareness about Nipah virus&#44; its symptoms&#44; and preventive measures within the community&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Reporting mechanisms&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Encouraging individuals to report symptoms promptly through hotlines&#44; community health workers&#44; or online platforms&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Community health workers&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Training and involving local health workers in active surveillance and reporting in remote areas&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_colgroup " colspan="2" align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Response and control</span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Rapid response teams&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Preparing specialized teams for swift response to identified cases&#44; including isolation and treatment measures&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Vaccination programs&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Implementing vaccination campaigns for at-risk populations&#44; especially in areas with a history of Nipah outbreaks&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Communication strategies&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Developing effective communication plans to disseminate information&#44; guidelines&#44; and updates to the public&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">International collaboration&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Collaborating with neighboring countries and global health organizations for a coordinated and comprehensive response&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "titulo" => "Prediction and prevention of the next pandemic zoonosis"
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                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "S&#46;S&#46; Morse"
                            1 => "J&#46;A&#46; Mazet"
                            2 => "M&#46; Woolhouse"
                            3 => "C&#46;R&#46; Parrish"
                            4 => "D&#46; Carroll"
                            5 => "W&#46;B&#46; Karesh"
                          ]
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                        "tituloSerie" => "The Lancet"
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                        "paginaInicial" => "1956"
                        "paginaFinal" => "1965"
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                      "titulo" => "Host and viral traits predict zoonotic spillover from mammals"
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                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "K&#46;J&#46; Olival"
                            1 => "P&#46;R&#46; Hosseini"
                            2 => "C&#46; Zambrana-Torrelio"
                            3 => "N&#46; Ross"
                            4 => "T&#46;L&#46; Bogich"
                            5 => "P&#46; Daszak"
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                    ]
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1038/nature22975"
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                        "tituloSerie" => "Nature&#46;"
                        "fecha" => "2017"
                        "volumen" => "546"
                        "numero" => "7660"
                        "paginaInicial" => "646"
                        "paginaFinal" => "650"
                        "link" => array:1 [
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                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28636590"
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                      "titulo" => "Origin and cross-species transmission of bat coronaviruses in China"
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                          "etal" => true
                          "autores" => array:6 [
                            0 => "A&#46; Latinne"
                            1 => "B&#46; Hu"
                            2 => "K&#46;J&#46; Olival"
                            3 => "G&#46; Zhu"
                            4 => "L&#46; Zhang"
                            5 => "H&#46; Li"
                          ]
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1038/s41467-020-17687-3"
                      "Revista" => array:6 [
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                        "fecha" => "2020"
                        "volumen" => "11"
                        "numero" => "1"
                        "paginaInicial" => "4235"
                        "link" => array:1 [
                          0 => array:2 [
                            "url" => "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32843626"
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                      "titulo" => "Genetic characterization of Nipah virus&#44; Bangladesh&#44; 2004"
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Article information

ISSN: 15769887
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.vacun.2024.02.002

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