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array:22 [ "pii" => "S2445146024000141" "issn" => "24451460" "doi" => "10.1016/j.vacune.2024.02.011" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-01-01" "aid" => "330" "copyrightAnyo" => "2024" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Vacunas. 2024;25:97-108" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "itemSiguiente" => array:17 [ "pii" => "S2445146024000165" "issn" => "24451460" "doi" => "10.1016/j.vacune.2024.02.013" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-01-01" "aid" => "315" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "subdocumento" => "rev" "cita" => "Vacunas. 2024;25:109-27" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "en" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Review article</span>" "titulo" => "Delving into revolutionary SARS-CoV-2 vaccine approaches: Molecular and virological examinations; principles of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine platform" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "109" "paginaFinal" => "127" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Adentrándose en enfoques revolucionarios de vacunas SARS-CoV-2: Exámenes moleculares y virológicos; principios de la plataforma de vacunas SARS-CoV-2" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0010" "etiqueta" => "Fig 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 2864 "Ancho" => 2963 "Tamanyo" => 737694 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0010" "detalle" => "Fig " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The life cycle and replication of SARS-CoV-2. The SARS-CoV-2 attaches to cell attachment factors and interacts with specific cellular receptors, like angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), along with other host factors such as the cell surface serine protease TMPRSS2. This interaction facilitates the virus entering and merging with the cellular or endosomal membrane. Once inside, the genomic RNA (gRNA) is released and undergoes immediate translation of 2 large open reading frames, ORF1a and ORF1b. These ORFs produce polyproteins pp1a and pp1ab, which are then processed into individual non-structural proteins (nsps). These nsps form the viral replication and transcription complex. As the nsps are expressed, viral replication organelles are created, which consist of specific vesicles and membranes that protect the viral gRNA during replication and transcription of subgenomic mRNAs (Sg mRNAs). The structural proteins are translated and move into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes, passing through the ER-to-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC). Within the ERGIC, they interact with newly produced gRNA, enclosed in N (Nucleocapsid) proteins, leading to the budding of virions into secretory vesicular compartments. Finally, the infected cell secretes the virions by exocytosis.</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Fahime Edalat, Fatemeh Hosseini Tabatabaie, Afagh Moattari, Arash Letafati, Jamal Sarvari, Seyed Younes Hosseini" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Fahime" "apellidos" => "Edalat" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Fatemeh Hosseini" "apellidos" => "Tabatabaie" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Afagh" "apellidos" => "Moattari" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Arash" "apellidos" => "Letafati" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Jamal" "apellidos" => "Sarvari" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Seyed Younes" "apellidos" => "Hosseini" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2445146024000165?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/24451460/0000002500000001/v1_202403150618/S2445146024000165/v1_202403150618/en/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:17 [ "pii" => "S2445146024000153" "issn" => "24451460" "doi" => "10.1016/j.vacune.2024.02.012" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-01-01" "aid" => "331" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Vacunas. 2024;25:88-96" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "en" => array:13 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Review Article</span>" "titulo" => "mRNA vaccines in gastric cancer: How close are we?" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "88" "paginaFinal" => "96" ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "VACUNAS ARNm EN CANCER GÀSTRICO ¿QUE TAN CERCA ESTAMOS?" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0010" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1349 "Ancho" => 2008 "Tamanyo" => 188201 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0010" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Mechanism of activation of the immune system for the mRNA vaccine. The mRNA-encoded vaccine allows the expression of surface receptors in the APC (MHC-I, CD80/CD84, and CD70) and activates the CD8+ T cells through the interaction with the TCR, CD28, and CD27. The CD8+ T cells, as soon as they can, search for the tumor cell and bind to its TSA to release the molecules (IL-2, IFN-γ, TNF, etc.) to annihilate the tumor cell. For its part, the APC to activate CD4+ T cells expresses MHC-II, CD80/CD86, CD40, and CD70 on its surface, and interacts with its TCR, CD28, CD40L, and CD27 receptors. The CD4+ T cells activated through the TSA manages to recognize the tumor cell and release the molecules to kill it.</p> <p id="sp0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Source: The authors.</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "José Dario Portillo-Miño, David Bettin-Gonzalez, Franco Andrés Montenegro Coral" "autores" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "José Dario" "apellidos" => "Portillo-Miño" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "David" "apellidos" => "Bettin-Gonzalez" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Franco Andrés Montenegro" "apellidos" => "Coral" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S2445146024000153?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/24451460/0000002500000001/v1_202403150618/S2445146024000153/v1_202403150618/en/main.assets" ] "en" => array:20 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Review article</span>" "titulo" => "Recent advancements in cancer vaccines: A systematic review" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "paginas" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "97" "paginaFinal" => "108" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Stuti Srivastava, Devendra Singh, Sunil Kumar Verma, Minakshi Pandey, Avinash Sharma, Himanshu Pandey, Anshu Mishra" "autores" => array:7 [ 0 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Stuti" "apellidos" => "Srivastava" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "af0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Devendra" "apellidos" => "Singh" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "devendrasingh.ibst@srmu.ac.in" ] "referencia" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "af0010" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cr0005" ] 2 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Sunil Kumar" "apellidos" => "Verma" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "af0010" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] 3 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Minakshi" "apellidos" => "Pandey" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "af0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] 4 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Avinash" "apellidos" => "Sharma" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">c</span>" "identificador" => "af0015" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] 5 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Himanshu" "apellidos" => "Pandey" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">d</span>" "identificador" => "af0020" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] 6 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Anshu" "apellidos" => "Mishra" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">e</span>" "identificador" => "af0025" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:5 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Faculty of Biosciences, Institute of Biosciences & Technology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "af0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Faculty of Biotechnology, Institute of Biosciences & Technology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "af0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh 792103, India" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "af0015" ] 3 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "PG Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar, Punjab 143002, India" "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "af0020" ] 4 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Pharmacy, Maharishi University of Information Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India" "etiqueta" => "e" "identificador" => "af0025" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cr0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Avances recientes en vacunas contra el cáncer: una revisión sistemática" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0020" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1002 "Ancho" => 1890 "Tamanyo" => 135810 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0020" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The innate immune system controls antigen presentation, which represents both CD4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ as well as CD8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ epitopes activated through activation, and this prevents the growth of tumor tissue.</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="s0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0025">Introduction</span><span id="s0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0030">History</span><p id="p0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Throughout the annals of human history, cancer has been a formidable adversary. From ancient Egyptian papyri to the writings of Hippocrates, references to this insidious disease can be found. However, it was in the 19th century that significant advancements were made in understanding its nature.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The revolutionary discoveries by pathologists and scientists paved the way for modern oncology and shaped our perceptions of cancer as a complex biological phenomenon.</p><p id="p0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The historical journey begins with Rudolf Virchow's groundbreaking theory that cancer originates from normal cells undergoing abnormal growth and division. This concept laid the foundation for subsequent investigations into carcinogenesis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> In the early 20th century, James Ewing's meticulous studies on tumor classification further expanded our understanding by categorizing different types of cancers based on their tissue origins.</p><p id="p0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cancer has a vast and complex history dating back thousands of years. The first known cases of cancer date back to ancient Egypt, specifically around 1600 BC, where papyri recorded cases of tumors and their surgical removal.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Famous Greek physicians such as Hippocrates and Galen contributed significantly to the early understanding of cancer, attributing it to an imbalance of body fluids. Throughout history, many different theories regarding cancer have emerged, including the concept of “fluid” and the belief that the disease can be caused by injury or inflammation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> However, it was not until the 19th century that more systematic scientific research on cancer began. In 1838, German pathologist Johannes Müller introduced the term “cancer” to describe malignant tumors.</p><p id="p0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The 20th century saw significant advances in cancer research. In 1911, Peyton Rous made a groundbreaking discovery when he discovered that a virus could cause cancer in chickens, laying the foundation for understanding the role of viruses in the development of cancer. Then, the development of chemotherapy and radiation therapy in the 1940s and 1950s revolutionized cancer treatment.</p><p id="p0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The elucidation of DNA structure in 1953 by Watson and Crick led to a better understanding of the genetic basis of cancer. Ultimately, this knowledge led to the identification of specific cancer-causing genes, commonly known as oncogenes. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw tremendous advances in cancer diagnosis and treatment, including the development of targeted therapies and immunotherapy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> While it remains a major health challenge, ongoing research efforts continue to advance our understanding of this multifaceted disease and create more effective treatments from that bring hope to countless people affected by cancer around the world.</p></span><span id="s0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0035">Classification of neoplasm (tumor)</span><p id="p0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The uncontrolled development and spread of aberrant cells characterize the complicated group of disorders known as cancer. There are many types of cancer, each named after the part of the body or organ where it arises. Common types include breast cancer, which affects breast tissue; lung cancer, which originates in the lungs; and prostate cancer in the prostate. Colorectal cancer affects the colon or rectum, while skin cancer includes both malignant and non-melanoma forms. Ovarian cancer targets the ovaries, and pancreatic cancer develops in the pancreas.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="p0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">While lymphoma affects the lymphatic system, leukemia affects the blood as well as bone marrow. Brain cancer forms in brain tissue, and bladder cancer starts in the bladder lining. Kidney cancer arises from the kidneys, liver cancer arises from the liver, and thyroid cancer arises from the thyroid gland. Esophageal cancer occurs in the esophagus, stomach cancer occurs in the stomach lining, and cervical cancer occurs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Testicular cancer affects the testicles, bone cancer, and sarcoma of soft tissue or bone. These are just a few examples of the diversity of cancer types, each requiring specific diagnostic and treatment approaches.</p><p id="p0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These are just a few examples, and there are many cancer subtypes and variations within each of these types. Cancer can affect almost any part of the body and can have many different causes, risk factors, and treatments depending on the type plus stage of the cancer.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p></span><span id="s0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0040">Medical aspects of cancer</span><p id="p0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Within the vast field of medicine, the field of cancer research and treatment is a ray of hope in the shadow cast by this terrible disease. The medical community is working tirelessly to unravel the mysteries surrounding cancer and find effective ways to combat its insidious nature. The field of oncology, which focuses on cancer research and treatment, has made remarkable advances in recent years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Physicians who specialize in oncology have a deep understanding of the complexities of diagnosing and treating different types of cancer.</p><p id="p0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Through extensive research, they have developed advanced techniques to detect early cancer, enabling rapid intervention and improving patient outcomes. These methods include advanced imaging techniques, for instance, CT, MRI, and PET, as well as minimally invasive diagnostic techniques such as biopsies, liquid biopsies, and genetic testing.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11–13</span></a></p></span><span id="s0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0045">Accessible diagnostics for cancer</span><p id="p0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a few years, remarkable advances have been made in the field of cancer diagnosis, changing the landscape of early detection and treatment. Medical professionals are now equipped with a variety of advanced tools and techniques that allow them to detect and diagnose cancer with unprecedented accuracy. One diagnostic method that has revolutionized cancer detection is liquid biopsy. Liquid biopsies provide a non-invasive way to detect genetic changes associated with different types of cancer by analyzing tumor DNA fragments circulating in the bloodstream.</p><p id="p0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This breakthrough technology not only allows for fast and early detection but also allows doctors to monitor disease progression and assess response to long-term treatment. Furthermore, remarkable progress has been made in molecular imaging technology for cancer diagnosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> For example, a PET-CT scan combines the features of PET as well as CT to provide detailed images that highlight a tumor's metabolic activity. These scans are invaluable in determining the extent of cancer spread and determining treatment.</p><p id="p0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The advent of digital pathology has also greatly improved cancer diagnosis. By digitizing tissue samples and using artificial intelligence algorithms, pathologists can remotely analyze high-resolution images, enabling faster and more accurate diagnoses.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> This technology has great potential to improve patient outcomes through early intervention. The availability of these advanced diagnostic tools offers great hope to patients battling cancer. Early detection through liquid biopsy and molecular imaging allows doctors to intervene at an earlier stage when treatment outcomes are generally better. Furthermore, leveraging the capabilities of digital pathology improves diagnostic accuracy, reduces turnaround time, and ultimately leads to better management strategies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p></span><span id="s0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0050">Therapeutics for cancer</span><p id="p0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Vaccines have been notably fine against illnesses like measles, smallpox, polio, and chickenpox. They are one of the safest and also most reasonably priced potential for the prevention of sickness. In current years, vaccinations against other illnesses such as AIDS and most cancers are also being considered. Cancer vaccines can be divided into preventive vaccines and therapeutic vaccines. Commercially accessible preventive vaccines for the liver as well as cervical most cancers block contamination with the pathogens hepatitis B virus as well as human papillomavirus, respectively. The advantage of vaccines in cancer therapy lies in their capacity to “boost” the immune system's normally vulnerable response to most cancer cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19–21</span></a> However, the use of vaccines in the remedy of cancer is particularly new and mostly investigational. Therapeutic vaccines for lung, breast, prostate, colon, kidney, and skin, as well as different cancers, are presently in scientific trials. Oncology nurses can play an essential position in decreasing limitations to preventive vaccination in the prevalent neighborhood as well as increasing patient acceptance of cancer vaccines. The types of vaccines we can use to cure or fight cancer are mRNA vaccines, personalized vaccines, neo-antigen vaccines, combination therapies, protein/ peptide vaccines, genetic vaccines, and cell-based cancer vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22–24</span></a></p></span><span id="s0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0055">Personalized vaccines</span><p id="p0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Researchers worked to develop personalized cancer vaccines tailored to each individual's individual cancer mutations. This approach aimed to beautify the body's capability to specifically apprehend and attack most cancer cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Personalized immunotherapy is created by analyzing a patient's tumor to identify mutations unique to that person's cancer and using that information to develop an immunotherapy tailored to that patient.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="p0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Before the introduction of personalized vaccines, people with the same type of cancer usually received the same treatment. Over time, doctors have discovered that treatments work better for some people than others. Even now, standard treatments are available depending on the type and stage of cancer.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> However, your doctor can customize it based on information about your genes and cancer genes. This is personalized cancer care. Personalized cancer vaccines are also known as personalized or neoantigen vaccines. These vaccines are designed to target specific mutations found in a patient's neoplasm (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0005">Fig. 1</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="f0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="p0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These vaccines hold the potential to be more effective as well as have less side effects as compared to other cancer treatment methods.</p></span><span id="s0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0060">mRNA vaccines</span><p id="p0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">mRNA cancer vaccines are an exciting area of <span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>research and development in oncology. These vaccines use messenger RNA (mRNA) to stimulate an immune response against cancer cells. mRNA contains instructions for the immune system to recognize and target specific cancer antigens.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29–31</span></a> There have been promising developments in mRNA vaccine technology, such as COVID-19 vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p><p id="p0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">mRNA vaccines are being developed as a promising cancer treatment. It should be noted that the development and manufacture of mRNA vaccines requires the identification of the antigenic sequence of the target antigen (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0010">Fig. 2</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="f0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="p0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">mRNA vaccines have proven to be a strong substitute to conventional vaccines due to its high vigor, safety, effectiveness, rapid clinical progress, as well as the potential for quick, cost-effective production. These vaccines have gone from being an interest to being pioneers against the COVID-19 pandemic.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> Advances in the field of nanotechnology to develop mRNA vaccine delivery vehicles have been significant.</p><p id="p0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Clinical progress of mRNA vaccines contains a series of scientific trials to assess safety, immunogenicity, as well as productiveness in people. It will be divided into phases 1, 2, 3, and 4 based on the number of patients and the purpose of the study. In Phase 1, trials are conducted in small groups primarily to confirm the safety as well as pharmacokinetics of the designed vaccine, and in Phase 2, trials are proof-of-principle studies designed primarily to check the outcomes achieved in Phase 1 trials as well as assess successfulness in a slightly larger number of people.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> In 3rd phase, studies are conducted at various centers as well as on multiple subjects to ratify the effectiveness as well as safety of the candidate vaccine. Interestingly, this research is typically performed with a placebo or active comparator. Finally, in 4th phase, study are conducted after a vaccine has received marketing approval and are primarily intended to confirm the safety of the vaccine.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a></p></span><span id="s0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0065">Protein/peptide vaccines</span><p id="p0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Protein/peptide-based cancer vaccines are a type of immunotherapy designed to stimulate the immune system to recognize as well as target cancerous cells using specific proteins associated with the cells. These vaccines can be made using a variety of methods, including whole tumor proteins, cancer-specific proteins, or tumor-associated antigens.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a></p><p id="p0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Here's how they ordinarily function:</p><p id="p0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">1. <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Antigen selection</span>: Researchers identify specific proteins or antigens that are present in or specific to cancer cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> These proteins are selected because they are recognized as foreign or abnormal by the immune system.</p><p id="p0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">2. <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Vaccine design</span>: The selected proteins or antigens are purified, synthesized, or genetically engineered. They are then formulated into a vaccine.</p><p id="p0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">3. <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Vaccination</span>: Patients receive the protein-based cancer vaccine, usually through injections. The vaccine contains the cancer-associated proteins or antigens.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p><p id="p0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">4. <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Immune response</span>: The immune system identifies the introduced proteins as foreign and then mounts an immune response against them. Immune cells, like T cells and B cells, are activated.</p><p id="p0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">5. <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Targeting cancer cells</span>: Activated immune cells, particularly cytotoxic T cells, seek out and attack cancer cells that express the same proteins or antigens present in the vaccine.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a></p><p id="p0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The goal of protein-based vaccines (cancer) is to train the immune system to specifically identify as well as attack the cancerous cells, thereby eliminating healthy cells. However, the effectiveness of these vaccines may vary depending on the type of cancer, the antigen chosen, and the patient's immune response.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a></p><p id="p0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is essential to note that although some protein-based cancer vaccines have shown promise in clinical trials, they may not be available for all cancer types and their uses. It may be limited in certain cases or combined with other cancer treatments like A multi-epitope vaccine (i.e., SARS-CoV-2 M).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a></p><p id="p0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Protein subunits with a specific virus product do not complete the infection but are used to ensure the body's immunity. SARS-CoV-2 has structural defects as well as protein components S, envelope (E), and membrane (M) proteins are the key proteins of SARS-CoV-2. These proteins are found in the phospholipid bilayer and nucleo-capsid (N) protein (Ribonucleoprotein core) of the virus. Protein S facilitates the synthesis of bacteria and enters the cell by binding to ACE 2. The S protein has 2 subunits, S1 plus S2. The S1 unit is the C-terminal receptor binding domain (RBD) and is involved in receptor recognition, and the S2 subunit is utilized for membrane fusion required for entry into the host. M protein plays a role in the production of the Virion envelope. The antibodies neutralize the virus by binding to the S protein, whose genetic line or spike protein is the key part of the SARS-Cov-2 vaccine. The E protein is required for SARS-Cov-2 infection, and the N protein binds to the viral RNA genome to form a helicase.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46–48</span></a></p></span><span id="s0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0070">Monoclonal antibodies available for cancer treatment</span><p id="p0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Monoclonal antibodies are monospecific antibodies made by the same immune cells, each of which is a clone of a unique parent cell. It is the product of a single stimulated B cell.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a> It binds to a single epitope on an antigen and also has high specificity for a single epitope (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0015">Fig. 3</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="f0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="p0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Monoclonal antibodies are available in the market. These antibodies are designed in laboratories to mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful pathogens like viruses or cancer cells. There are several monoclonal antibodies produced on the basis of therapeutic and diagnostic use, and many pharmaceutical companies produce monoclonal antibodies for various medical purposes, like Biogen, Johnson & Johnson, Eli Lilly & Company, Roche, Sanofi, etc. (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#t0005">Table 1</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="t0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="s0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0075">Cancer vaccine mechanisms</span><p id="p0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is essential for a cancer vaccine to elicit a potent immune response, recognize, and eradicate primary and secondary tumor cells with accuracy, be antigen-specific, have few systemic adverse effects, and not cause autoimmune reactions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a> Another factor to take into account is that a strong immunological recall is required by the vaccination to fight cancer cells, that is essential for long-term illness resolution. The elevated cancer mortality rate has actually been mostly attributed to relapses rather than the initial tumor. Cancer vaccines with an immunotherapy foundation attempt to stimulate the body's natural defenses against the disease, whether they be cellular or humoral.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a> Most commonly, cancer vaccinations cause the development of CD8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ T lymphocytes that are specifically tuned to recognize and eliminate the cancerous cells. CTLs (Cytotoxic T lymphocytes) that are specific for tumor antigens bind to the epitopes of cancer antigens to recognize them.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> Additionally, CTLs cause cancer cell death through a number of TCR signaling pathways, including breakdown (release of perforin/serine protease), activation of a cluster of differentiating ligand (CD95L), and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). Tumor dendritic cells (DCs) must instruct CTLs for optimal usage. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) known as type 1 conventional CD103<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ moving DCs elucidate CTLs prior to the discovery of cancer cells through three distinct mechanisms: firstly, cancer antigen attached to MHC-I, co-stimulatory molecules (CD28/152 as well as CD80/86), as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-12 as well as TNF-α).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a> Upon activation, CTLs, as well as CD4C Th cells, acquire certain traits that have an important impact on the eventual effectiveness of CTL cytotoxic actions. Additionally, CD4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ Th cells are activated and supported by cytokine-mediated DC licensing. Similar to how CD8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ T-cells are activated, CD4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ T-cells are also activated by APCs, with the exception that MHC-II than MHC-I displays the tumor antigen epitope.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> Following activation, CTLs, as well as CD4C Th cells, acquire certain traits that have an important impact on the efficiency of CTL cytotoxic effects. The cytokine cocktail, which is released through a toxic mechanism that stimulates the death of cells, is frequently used to identify the phenotypes of CTLs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64–66</span></a> Numerous research studies have shown that CTL-mediated IFN-ϒ plus TNF-α mediated production correlates with proper tumor reducting potential as well as enhanced the endurance of patients. Other studies have demonstrated that patient endurance increases once CD4C Th cells take on a Th1 phenotype, which is identified by the secretion of IL-2, TNF-α, as well as IFN-ϒ. It was observed that merging the response of Th1 cells with the Th17 predisposition, as shown by the IL-17 production, maybe even more beneficial, but this is more controversial. Immunological reactions that produce a large number of antitumor T-cell clones (numerous clones of T-cell) were stronger because each T-cell has a distinct TCR that only identifies one antigenic epitope.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> The best immune response to vaccination may differ between different types of cancer. In order to slow the spread of cancer, cancer vaccinations can potentially use antibody-mediated cytotoxic mechanisms.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">69</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">70</span></a> When cancer cells bind to antibodies, antibody-mediated toxicity, as well as antibody-mediated phagocytosis, will be employed to kill them. These methods have primarily been employed for passive immunotherapy in cancer vaccines utilizing humoral immunotherapy, which aims to induce anticancer antibodies in the individual's body. Once antibodies recognize epitopes on the surfaces of cancerous cells, the innate immune system's macrophages, natural killer cells, as well as neutrophils can recognize the associated antibody Fc receptors as well as initiate cell lysis or phagocytosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">71</span></a><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#f0020">Fig. 4</a> shows antigen presentation controlled by the innate immune system represents activation of CD4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ and CD8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ epitopes, which prevents the growth of tumor tissue.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="f0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="s0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0080">Other cancer treatment methods</span><p id="p0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">When it comes to fighting cancer, there are many treatment options that healthcare professionals can use, tailored to each patient's specific needs. These treatments include a multidisciplinary approach that aims to kill the cancerous cells, whereas minimizing damage to healthy tissue.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">73</span></a></p><p id="p0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One of the main treatment modalities is surgery, in which skilled surgeons remove malignant tumors and surrounding tissue. This method has evolved significantly over the years as minimally invasive techniques have become more popular, providing less post-operative pain and faster recovery times for patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> Additionally, advances in imaging technology have allowed surgeons to precisely target tumors and perform complex procedures with greater precision.</p><p id="p0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cancer treatment includes a variety of methods to combat abnormal cell growth and reduce its impact on the body. The choice of cancer treatment basically depends on the stage as well as the type of cancer, along with the individual patient factors.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a> Some of the main cancer treatments are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#t0010">Table 2</a>. (See <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#t0015">Table 3</a>.)</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="t0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="t0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="p0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Effective cancer treatment often involves a combination of these methods, called a multimodal approach, to target the disease from multiple angles.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0515"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103–105</span></a> The choice of treatment should be carefully discussed with the healthcare team to determine the most appropriate plan for each patient's unique circumstances.</p></span><span id="s0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0085">Vaccines and clinical trials</span><p id="p0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The development of vaccines for cancer therapy and prevention depends heavily on clinical trials. Many different forms of cancer are being tested by researchers as vaccinations, including:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="l0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Bladder cancer:</span> Researchers are evaluating the efficacy of a designed vaccine developed from a virus modified with the antigen (HER2). Some bladder cancer tumor surfaces are home to these chemicals or antigens. The virus could aid in instructing the immune system to recognize as well as eliminate these tumor cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">114</span></a> Additionally, investigators want to discover which performs well: conventional medical care for bladder cancer or standard care combined with vaccination.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Brain tumors:</span> Numerous studies were being conducted to evaluate vaccinations intended to target specific chemicals found on the brain tumor cells' surface.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0575"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115</span></a> Some emphasis on recently discovered brain cancer, emphasizing cancer that has returned or recurred. Teenagers and children are included in several research.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">116</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Breast cancer:</span> A lot of research is being done on therapeutic vaccines for breast cancer, whether they are used alone or in conjunction with other treatments. In order to begin clinical trials for vaccines that prevent breast cancer, other researchers are currently trying.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">117</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Cervical cancer:</span> The HPV vaccinations that prevent the cancer (cervical) have FDA approval. Vaccines that aid in treating cervical cancer at every stage are still being researched.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Colorectal cancer:</span> In order to cure colorectal cancer, scientists are developing vaccinations that instruct the body to target cells with antigens suspected to be responsible. NY-ESO-1, guanylyl cyclase C, CEA, and MUC1 are some of these antigens.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Kidney cancer:</span> To treat kidney cancer, many cancer vaccines are being tested by researchers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a> Additionally, vaccinations to stop the cancer (kidney) in its later stages from returning are being tested.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Leukemia:</span> Studies are exploring into vaccinations that might be used to treat leukemia of several forms, including AML as well as CLL. Some are intended to improve the effectiveness of other therapies, including a bone marrow/stem cell transplant.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0520"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">104</span></a> The immune system may be assisted in eliminating the cancer by additional vaccinations created from an individual's cancer cells as well as other cells.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Lung cancer:</span> Clinical studies for lung cancer vaccinations focus on antigens.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0045"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Melanoma:</span> Numerous melanoma vaccines, administered alone or in combination with other therapies, are being studied by researchers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">105</span></a> The immune system is instructed to eliminate more melanoma cells in the human body by destroying melanoma cells as well as antigens in vaccinations.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0050"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Myeloma:</span> For those with multiple myeloma who are close to remission, there are several clinical studies investigating at vaccinations. This indicates that there are no symptoms and that the cancer has spread throughout the body. Additionally, those who have smoldering myeloma or require an autologous bone marrow or stem cell transplant are being tested for vaccinations by researchers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0055"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Pancreatic cancer:</span> Many vaccines for therapy are being developed by researchers to improve the response of immune systems to pancreatic cancer cells. The vaccination can be administered in conjunction with other treatments or as the only form of care.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">118</span></a></p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="li0060"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">•</span><p id="p0255" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Prostate cancer:</span> Sipuleucel-T is a vaccination that medical professionals can administer to patients with this cancer who have advanced disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0595"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">119</span></a> Presently, research is examining if the vaccination might benefit those with prostate cancer in its early stages.</p></li></ul></p></span><span id="s0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0090">Recent advancements in cancer treatment</span><p id="p0260" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In recent years, the field of cancer vaccines has seen amazing advancements, paving the way for more effective and targeted treatments. One significant breakthrough is the development of personalized cancer vaccines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> These vaccines are tailor-made to stimulate the immune system of patients to identify as well as attack the specific cancerous cells.</p><p id="p0265" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Scientists have also made tremendous progress in utilizing different vaccine platforms. One such platform is mRNA-based vaccines, which have gained vast attention because of their potential in addressing various types of cancer. Unlike traditional vaccines that introduce weakened or inactivated viruses, mRNA-based vaccines use messenger RNA molecules to instruct cells to produce specific antigens that trigger an immune response against cancer cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="p0270" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One more recent advancement is a technique known as molecular mimicry. Actually, the word “molecular mimicry” was first introduced in year 1964 to define the similarity amongst the human cells and antigens expressed by infectious agents, which cause bacterial escape the host immune response and infection is stronger.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> The opposite inference of molecular mimicry had been proposed 2 years prior despite the lack of scientific proof of molecular similarity. Cross-reactive antibodies against human heart tissue as well as group A streptococcal cells were recognized in a suffering from rheumatic fever, signifying a pathophysiological role in that autoimmune disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">120</span></a> The phenomena of immune evasion and molecular mimicry-induced autoimmunity may seem contradictory but are 2 sides of the same coin, representing extremes of a continuous biological process.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20–22</span></a></p><p id="p0275" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In recent times, nanotechnology is also going to play a vital role in cancer vaccine development. In order to comprehend, develop, and employ material devices, systems, and structures with fundamentally novel characteristics and functionalities deriving from their microscopic structure, nanotechnology requires the ability to operate on the atomic, molecular, as well as supramolecular levels.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> The engineering and science involved in design, synthesis, and characterization in at least 1 dimension that is on the nanoscale scale, or one-billionth of a meter, is referred to as nanotechnology.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> With the help of nanotechnology, protein/peptide vaccines, genetic vaccines, and cell-based cancer vaccines can be developed for the treatment of various types of cancers.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">121</span></a></p></span></span><span id="s0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="st0095">Conclusion</span><p id="p0280" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In conclusion, the recent advancements in cancer vaccines have brought new hope to the field of oncology. With the development of personalized and targeted vaccines, researchers are making significant strides in improving patient outcomes and reducing the burden of cancer. The integration of innovative technologies such as genetic sequencing and immunotherapy has revolutionized the way we approach cancer treatment. As scientists continue to unravel the complexities of the immune system and harness its power to fight against cancer, we can remain optimistic about a future where effective vaccines offer a promising avenue for prevention and treatment, bringing us closer to a world free from this devastating disease.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:7 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2108207" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "as0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1796034" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2108206" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "as0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1796035" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "s0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" "secciones" => array:13 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0010" "titulo" => "History" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0015" "titulo" => "Classification of neoplasm (tumor)" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0020" "titulo" => "Medical aspects of cancer" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0025" "titulo" => "Accessible diagnostics for cancer" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0030" "titulo" => "Therapeutics for cancer" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0035" "titulo" => "Personalized vaccines" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0040" "titulo" => "mRNA vaccines" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0045" "titulo" => "Protein/peptide vaccines" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0050" "titulo" => "Monoclonal antibodies available for cancer treatment" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0055" "titulo" => "Cancer vaccine mechanisms" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0060" "titulo" => "Other cancer treatment methods" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0065" "titulo" => "Vaccines and clinical trials" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0070" "titulo" => "Recent advancements in cancer treatment" ] ] ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "s0075" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] 6 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2023-09-27" "fechaAceptado" => "2023-10-18" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1796034" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Cancer" 1 => "Vaccine" 2 => "Clinical trials" 3 => "Immunotherapy" 4 => "Tumor" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1796035" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Cáncer" 1 => "vacuna" 2 => "ensayos clínicos" 3 => "inmunoterapia" 4 => "tumor" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="as0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="sp0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Cancer is a versatile and common disease that occurs as a result of the uncontrolled growth as well as the spread of abnormal cells in the human body. Its history spans thousands of years, from the first descriptions of ancient civilizations to the advancement of modern science. His research throughout the 20th and 21st centuries revealed the genetic and molecular mechanisms of growth and development. Treatment options are diverse and include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Despite great progress, cancer remains a global health problem. Research is ongoing to further unravel the complexity of this disease to improve early diagnosis, personalized treatment strategies, and achieve better patient outcomes. This study provides a general definition, diagnosis, treatment, and course of cancer and attempts to determine whether it is beneficial or harmful to humans.</p></span>" ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="as0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="sp0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El cáncer es una enfermedad versátil y común que se produce como resultado del crecimiento descontrolado y la propagación de células anormales en el cuerpo humano. Su historia abarca miles de años, desde las primeras descripciones de civilizaciones antiguas hasta el avance de la ciencia moderna. Sus investigaciones a lo largo de los siglos XX y XXI revelaron los mecanismos genéticos y moleculares del crecimiento y el desarrollo. Las opciones de tratamiento son diversas e incluyen cirugía, radiación, quimioterapia, quimioterapia e inmunoterapia. A pesar de los grandes avances, el cáncer sigue siendo un problema de salud mundial. Se están realizando investigaciones para desentrañar aún más la complejidad de esta enfermedad para mejorar el diagnóstico temprano, las estrategias de tratamiento personalizadas y lograr mejores resultados para los pacientes. Este estudio proporciona una definición general, diagnóstico, tratamiento y curso del cáncer e intenta determinar si es beneficioso o perjudicial para los humanos.</p></span>" ] ] "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "etiqueta" => "1" "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="np0005">Each author contributed equally.</p>" "identificador" => "fn0005" ] ] "multimedia" => array:7 [ 0 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0005" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 498 "Ancho" => 1890 "Tamanyo" => 132715 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0005" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Outline of the development of personalized/neo-antigen vaccines.</p>" ] ] 1 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0010" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 699 "Ancho" => 1890 "Tamanyo" => 118849 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0010" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Steps involved in designing mRNA-based cancer vaccine.</p>" ] ] 2 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0015" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 498 "Ancho" => 980 "Tamanyo" => 50315 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0015" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Steps involved in the production of monoclonal antibody.</p>" ] ] 3 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "f0020" "etiqueta" => "Fig. 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1002 "Ancho" => 1890 "Tamanyo" => 135810 ] ] "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0020" "detalle" => "Fig. " "rol" => "short" ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The innate immune system controls antigen presentation, which represents both CD4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ as well as CD8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>+ epitopes activated through activation, and this prevents the growth of tumor tissue.</p>" ] ] 4 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "t0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0025" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Name of antibody \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Source \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Target \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Their uses \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">References \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Abagovomab \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Mouse \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">CA-125 (imitation) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Ovarian cancer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Abituzumab \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Humanized \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">CD51 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Cancer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Adecatumumab \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Human \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">EpCAM \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Prostate and breast cancer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Belantamab mafodotin \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Humanized \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">BCMA \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Refractory multiple myeloma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Bermekimab \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Human \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">IL-1a \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Colorectal cancer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Brentuximab vedotin \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Chimeric \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">CD30(TNFRSF8) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Hodgkin's lymphoma, anaplastic large-cell lymphoma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Cabiralizumab \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Humanized \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">CSF1R \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Metastatic pancreatic cancer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3487107.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Examples of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies available in the market.</p>" ] ] 5 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "t0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0030" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">S. No \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Treatment \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Description \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Reference \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">1. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Surgery \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Surgery to remove the tumor is a common method when the cancer is still localized and has not spread. Surgeons aim to remove the tumor and surrounding tissue to prevent its return. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Radiation therapy \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">This method usages high-energy radiation beams to target as well as to destroy the cancerous cells. It may be used as an initial cure or in amalgamation with other therapies. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">3. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Chemotherapy \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">It involves the use of drugs that circulate all over the body and kill rapidly dividing cells, including cancer cells. It is effective against local and metastatic cancer. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">82</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0415"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">83</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">4. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Immunotherapy \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Immunotherapy exploits the body's immune system to identify as well as to attack the cancerous cells. This therapy comprises of checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive cell therapy, and monoclonal antibodies. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">84–86</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">5. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Targeted therapy \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">These drugs specifically target molecules or pathways involved in cancer development. They usually have fewer side effects than chemotherapy. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Hormone therapy \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Used primarily for hormone-sensitive cancers like prostate and breast cancer, hormone therapy aims to block or reduce the effects of hormones that promote the growth of tumors. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0445"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">89–91</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">7. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Stem cell transplant \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">This procedure is used to replace damaged or cancerous bone marrow with the healthy stem cells. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0465"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">93</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">8. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Stratified medicine \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Tailoring treatments based on a suffers genetic profile is becoming increasingly important because it can lead to more effective therapies with fewer side effects. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">94</span></a><span class="elsevierStyleSup">,</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0475"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">95</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">9. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Palliative care \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Although not a cure, it aims to improve the quality of life of patients with cancer by controlling symptoms and providing emotional support. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">96–98</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">10. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Complementary therapies \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Some patients explore complementary methods such as acupuncture, yoga, or dietary changes along with conventional treatments to improve their health. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bb0495"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">99–102</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3487105.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Table shows the various available treatments.</p>" ] ] 6 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "t0015" "etiqueta" => "Table 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "al0035" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:2 [ "leyenda" => "<p id="sp0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">S-success; F-failure.</p>" "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Product \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Status \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Cancer type \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Completed phase III \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Outcome \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">References \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowgroup " rowspan="3" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Provenge®</td><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowgroup " rowspan="3" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Approved</td><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowgroup " rowspan="3" align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Prostate cancer</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">III D9901 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">F (Efficacy) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0530"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">106</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">III D9902A \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">F (Efficacy) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0535"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">107</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">III D9902B, IMPACT \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">S \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0540"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">108</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">DCVax®-Brain \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Approved \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Glioblastoma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Incomplete \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0545"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">109</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">HybriCell \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Approved \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Melanoma, Renal cell carcinoma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Incomplete \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0550"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">110</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">M-VaxTM \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Approved \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Melanoma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">III (immune-pharmacology) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0555"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">111</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">CIMAVax EGF® \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Approved \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Non-small cell lung cancer \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Incomplete \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">– \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">112</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Oncophage® (vitespen) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Approved \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Renal cell carcinoma \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">III C-100-12 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">F (Efficacy) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bb0565"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113</span></a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3487106.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="sp0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Table shows various clinical trial testing of the vaccines against various types of cancer.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bs0005" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:121 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bb0005" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "mRNA vaccine for cancer immunotherapy" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ …2] ] ] ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "doi" => "10.1186/s12943-021-01335-5" "Revista" => array:6 [ "tituloSerie" => "Mol Cancer" "fecha" => "2021" "volumen" => "20" "numero" => "1" "paginaInicial" => "41" "link" => 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=> "2021" "paginaInicial" => "8" ] ] ] ] ] ] 7 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bb0040" "etiqueta" => "8" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Peptide-based vaccines: current progress and future challenges" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ …2] ] ] ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "doi" => "10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00472" "Revista" => array:7 [ "tituloSerie" => "Chem Rev" "fecha" => "2020" "volumen" => "120" "numero" => "6" "paginaInicial" => "3210" "paginaFinal" => "3229" "link" => array:1 [ …1] ] ] ] ] ] ] 8 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bb0045" "etiqueta" => "9" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Antibodies to watch in 2019" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ …2] ] ] ] "host" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "doi" => "10.1080/19420862.2018.1556465" "Revista" => array:6 [ "tituloSerie" => "mAbs" "fecha" => "2019" "volumen" => "11" "numero" => "2" 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