array:21 [ "pii" => "S0210570524001857" "issn" => "02105705" "doi" => "10.1016/j.gastrohep.2024.502214" "estado" => "S200" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-06-27" "aid" => "502214" "copyrightAnyo" => "2024" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "rev" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "itemSiguiente" => array:17 [ "pii" => "S0210570524001997" "issn" => "02105705" "doi" => "10.1016/j.gastrohep.2024.502217" "estado" => "S200" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-06-28" "aid" => "502217" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L.U." "documento" => "simple-article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "crp" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "en" => array:10 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Scientific letters</span>" "titulo" => "Perivascular epithelioid cell neoplasm (PEComa) harboring <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">TFE3</span> gene rearrangements in a patient with Lynch syndrome" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Pecoma con reordenamiento del gen TFE3 en paciente con síndrome de Lynch" ] ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 2569 "Ancho" => 1967 "Tamanyo" => 1061067 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">(A) Axial MRI showing the pelvic nodule (arrow). (B) Gross image of the tumor after formalin fixation showing a white-gray mass. (C) TFE3 rearrangement-associated PEComa displaying nested or sheet-like architecture. (D) At a higher power, the tumor was composed of epithelioid cells with abundant clear to granular cytoplasm separated by delicate fibrovascular septa. (E) Immunohistochemical stain for TFE3 shows diffuse and strong nuclear staining by tumor cells. (F) HMB-45 was also expressed strongly. (G) The neoplasm shows scattered positive cells for MELAN A. (H) TFE3 FISH image indicating TFE3 gene rearrangement with widely separated red and green signals (TFE3 Dual Color Break Apart Probe).</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Ana B. Larqué, Gerard Frigola, Natalia Castrejón, Sherley Díaz-Mercedes, Eva Musulén Palet, Carolina Martínez Ciarpaglini, Stefania Landolfi, Antonio M. Lacy, Francesc Balaguer, Miriam Cuatrecasas" "autores" => array:10 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Ana B." "apellidos" => "Larqué" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Gerard" "apellidos" => "Frigola" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Natalia" "apellidos" => "Castrejón" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Sherley" "apellidos" => "Díaz-Mercedes" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Eva" "apellidos" => "Musulén Palet" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Carolina" "apellidos" => "Martínez Ciarpaglini" ] 6 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Stefania" "apellidos" => "Landolfi" ] 7 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Antonio M." "apellidos" => "Lacy" ] 8 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Francesc" "apellidos" => "Balaguer" ] 9 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Miriam" "apellidos" => "Cuatrecasas" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0210570524001997?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/02105705/unassign/S0210570524001997/v1_202406280417/en/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:17 [ "pii" => "S0210570520302533" "issn" => "02105705" "doi" => "10.1016/j.gastrohep.2020.05.020" "estado" => "S200" "fechaPublicacion" => "2020-09-04" "aid" => "1593" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L.U." "documento" => "simple-article" "crossmark" => 0 "subdocumento" => "ret" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "en" => array:8 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "titulo" => "WITHDRAWN: Higher appendicular skeletal muscle mass percentage is an independent protective factor for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and significant fibrosis in male with NAFLD" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => 0 "tieneResumen" => "en" "contieneResumen" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Yilun Xu, Yaqi Guan, Wenyi Jin, Li Ding, Jinming Wu" "autores" => array:5 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Yilun" "apellidos" => "Xu" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Yaqi" "apellidos" => "Guan" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Wenyi" "apellidos" => "Jin" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Li" "apellidos" => "Ding" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Jinming" "apellidos" => "Wu" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0210570520302533?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/02105705/unassign/S0210570520302533/v2_202101310608/en/main.assets" ] "en" => array:18 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Review</span>" "titulo" => "The endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span> infection: A potential visual mind-map during gastroscopy examination" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Pedro Delgado-Guillena, Mireya Jimeno, Antonio López-Nuñez, Henry Córdova, Gloria Fernández-Esparrach" "autores" => array:5 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Pedro" "apellidos" => "Delgado-Guillena" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "pgdg20@gmail.com" ] "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Mireya" "apellidos" => "Jimeno" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Antonio" "apellidos" => "López-Nuñez" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] ] 3 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Henry" "apellidos" => "Córdova" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">c</span>" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">d</span>" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] ] ] 4 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Gloria" "apellidos" => "Fernández-Esparrach" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">c</span>" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">d</span>" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital of Merida, Merida, Spain" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Pathology, Hospital of Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), IDIBAPS (Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer), Barcelona, Spain" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] 3 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain" "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "El modelo endoscópico de la carcinogénesis gástrica y la infección por <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span>: un potencial mapa mental durante la inspección endoscópica de la mucosa gástrica" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 1957 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 685072 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Endoscopic signs of intestinal metaplasia. Intestinal metaplasia can appear as slightly flat elevated with whitish patches (A), “map-like” redness or mottled reddish depression (B), regular tubulo-villous pattern and the whitish-bluish crest (C) or papular lesions with umbilical depression (D). Images were captured with high-definition imaging by Sonoscape, which includes three modes: (i) white-light endoscope (A1, B1, C1 and D2), virtual chromoendoscopy (ii) SFI mode (A2, B2, C2, and D2), and (iii) VIST mode (A3, B3, C3 and D3). SFI: spectral focused imaging; VIST: versatile intelligent staining technology.</p> <p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Reproduced with permission.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a>.</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The hypothesis of a multistep and sequential development of gastric cancer (GC) was proposed by Correa in 1975.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> It was finally completed in 1992 when the role of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span>) infection was introduced into the model as the main trigger for all changes of the gastric carcinogenesis process.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2,3</span></a> In this model, the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span> infection induces acute and chronic inflammatory changes over a normal mucosa, destroying specialized gastric cells. The cell loss can be replaced by fibrosis (glandular atrophy), intestinal metaplasia (IM) or pseudo-pyloric metaplasia (this last phenomenon only observed in the oxyntic compartment).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> In this inflammatory environment, low-/high-grade dysplasia can emerge with a subsequent higher risk of progression to adenocarcinoma.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Marshall and Warren (1983) reported the association between <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span> infection (called <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Campylobacter pylori</span> at that time) and chronic gastritis in the antrum.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Subsequently, several studies have demonstrated additional associations of Hp infection, such as with peptic ulcers and intestinal-type adenocarcinoma. In 1994, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span> was finally declared a carcinogenic agent by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Currently, Hp has been implicated in more than 90% of GCs, with the majority being adenocarcinomas (including also the diffuse-type adenocarcinoma).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this review, we aim to bridge the gap between previous histological knowledge of Hp infection and GC by providing an endoscopic perspective. Significant developments in imaging technologies, such as magnified endoscopy, high-definition (HD) imaging, and image-enhanced endoscopy (IEE) like virtual chromoendoscopy, have played a pivotal role in enhancing our understanding of the gastric mucosa. These improvements enable endoscopists to better characterize gastric lesions.</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From an endoscopic standpoint, various findings have been described at each stage of gastric carcinogenesis. Examples include the pattern of the pyloric/fundic gland and the regular arrangement of collecting venules (RAC) for normal gastric mucosa, the Kyoto classification for Hp-related gastritis, the Kimura–Takemoto (KT) classification for atrophy, the Endoscopic Grading of Gastric Intestinal Metaplasia (EGGIM) classification for IM, and the Vessel plus Surface (VS) classification for early GC. By integrating these findings, we can construct an endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis that elucidates the development of GC associated with Hp infection.</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Normal gastric mucosa</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At the histological examination, the normal gastric mucosa comprises two compartments with two well-differentiated types of glands: the pyloric gland (in the antrum – the distal compartment) and the fundic gland (in the corpus and fundus – the proximal compartment). The area of transition between the distal and the proximal compartment is typically formed by a mixture of both type of glands, known as the pyloric–fundic transitional area.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Some studies have shown that in young and healthy individuals, the incisura is composed of fundic glands, suggesting that the pyloric–fundic transitional area should be located in the antrum, distally to the incisura.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10–12</span></a> These two glands have some particular histological characteristics:<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">(i)</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The pyloric gland is formed by three to five glandular coils that share the same excretory duct that open into pits (pit-to-gland ratio: 50:50).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> The pyloric gland comprises loosely packed mucous-secreting glands that secrete alkaline mucus. One distinctive feature of this anatomic region is the presence of gastrin cells (G cells). The structure of the pyloric gland confers an oblique gland distribution.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">(ii)</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The fundic (oxyntic) gland is formed by a simple tubular gland with short foveolar segment (pit-to-gland ratio: 25:75).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> The fundic gland is composed of tightly packed glands that secrete acid and enzymes. The main constituents of this gland include oxyntic (parietal) and chief cells in the tubular units, including enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells. Additionally, there may be interspersed mucin cells, particularly in the glandular neck. The structure of the fundic glands confers a straight gland distribution.</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At the endoscopic examination, these two glands were initially described through the use of magnifying endoscopy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> In the distal compartment, the normal pyloric gland is endoscopically recognized by a “ridge pattern”, whereas in the proximal compartment, the normal fundic gland is identified by a “round pattern”. Additionally, in the proximal compartment, the presence of a regular arrangement of collecting venules (RAC) can be identified as part of the normal gastric mucosa.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14–17</span></a> The magnified endoscopic appearance of the normal glands in the antrum and the corpus–fundus can be easily explained by the oblique and straight histological distribution of the pyloric and fundic glands, respectively.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16,17</span></a> Currently, these patterns can also be detailed in a close-up view by using HD white-light endoscopy with IEE (especially virtual chromoendoscopy with blue-light spectrum). On the other hand, at an initial overview (a panoramic-view) by using only white-light endoscopy, the normal gastric mucosa should display a rose colour with a homogeneous and regular distribution. In the corpus, gastric folds should present a smooth appearance, with a width not exceeding 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18,19</span></a> In addition, the pyloric–fundic transitional area should not be usually identified.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Recognizing the normality of the gastric mucosa is crucial, as about 80% of gastroscopies are labelled as “normal” based on their endoscopic appearance. However, caution is essential, as roughly a third of missed GCs were erroneously reported as “normal” in previous gastroscopies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20,21</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Chronic gastric inflammation</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hp organisms are Gram-negative bacteria with a helical or spiral shape. They can survive in acidic conditions by producing the enzyme urease, which hydrolyses urea in the stomach to produce ammonia, thereby raising the pH and creating a more favourable environment for survival. Studies have shown that Hp has a strong tendency to colonize and initiate infection in the distal compartment of the stomach, particularly the antrum.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22,23</span></a> In different gastric niches, factors such as pH levels, distribution and viscosities of mucin glycoforms, and binding to gastric mucins in a pH-dependent manner may impact Hp adaptation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24–26</span></a> The pathophysiology of Hp infection is rooted in its ability to adhere to the inner surface of the cell membrane, disrupting tight junctions and triggering a cytokine-mediated inflammatory response.</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Chronic antral gastritis, characterized by a superficial band of plasma cells and lymphocytes infiltrating the lamina propria, along with marked neutrophilic infiltration (usually called “activity”), represents distinctive patterns of inflammation associated with Hp. The presence of non-specific lymphoid follicles is also common. In early acute gastritis, severe neutrophilic infiltrates aggregate in the pit lumens, forming pit abscesses. Both neutrophilic activity and the bacteria itself contribute to epithelial destruction, prompting mucous neck cells to proliferate in an attempt to replace the affected cells. Successful bacterial eradication leads to the rapid disappearance of neutrophils and progressive and slower attenuation of mononuclear inflammatory component (lymphocytes, histocytes and plasma cells). However, any pre-existing atrophy may persist, especially when it is severe. The persistence of neutrophils after treatment indicates therapeutic failure of the antibiotic treatment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13,27</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The presence of erythema is a well-established sign of inflammation of any aetiology, including endoscopic inflammation in the gastric mucosa. On the other hand, some particular endoscopic signs of Hp-related gastritis are the presence of nodularity in the antrum or enlargement of the gastric folds in the greater curvature of the corpus (≥5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm). Mucosal inflammation alters the visibility of the RAC, transitioning from their regular distribution to irregularity and, ultimately, complete disappearance. The absence of a RAC assessed at the distal part of the lesser curvature near the incisura, has been reported as an early endoscopic sign of Hp-related gastritis in both eastern and western patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> Some typical endoscopic signs of Hp-related gastritis have been included in the Kyoto classification (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Chronic atrophic gastritis</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Chronic atrophic gastritis is characterized by the loss of structural glands, where the loss of glands is replaced by fibrosis, and the loss of functional glands, which maintain a glandular morphology but are replaced by metaplastic cells.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> In Western countries with a low-intermediate incidence of GC, the overall histological prevalence of these conditions has been reported in approximately 22% of cases, with an extensive distribution involving the antrum and corpus noted in no more than 8%. At an histological examination, the incisura is the site where the most severe atrophic changes have been documented.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a></p><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Glandular atrophy</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At the endoscopic examination, loss of structural glands and its replacement by fibrosis is typically recognized by a pale colour, increased visibility of submucosal vessels, and the endoscopic visibility of the pyloric–fundic transitional area. As the endoscopic visibility of the pyloric–fundic transitional area was associated with gastric atrophy in the pyloric side, it was named the atrophic border in the KT classification in 1969.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0490"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> Initially, the proximal progression of the atrophic border to the fundic side was attributed to the ageing process. However, it is now accepted that this proximal advancement can be triggered or accelerated by several aetiologies, with Hp infection being particularly significant. The proximal expansion of the atrophic border is associated with an increased risk of GC.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18,31,32</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The KT classification includes two main groups, the close (C) type and the open (O) type, with each group subdivided into three subcategories: C1, C2, C3, O1, O2, and O3. The atrophic border is categorized as C1 when it is limited to the antrum/incisura. It can progress to the corpus, affecting first the distal part of the lesser curvature (C2) and then the proximal part of the lesser curvature (C3). When the atrophic border involves the entire lesser curvature of the corpus and reaches the cardia, the open type has begun (O1). The progression of the atrophic border continues to the anterior or posterior wall of the corpus (O2) and finally involves the greater curvature of the corpus (O3). Although the category C0 was not included in the KT classification, it denotes the absence of identification of the atrophic border (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0490"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30,33</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the Kyoto classification for Hp-related gastritis, the risk of GC is scored based on the proximal progression of the atrophic border according to the KT classification. It is grouped into three categories as C0/C1 (0 points), C2–C3 (1 point), and O1–O3 (2 points).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> Due to the moderate agreement between endoscopy and histology, a recent British study proposed a risk-oriented approach. According to this Western experience, this classification should be grouped into three categories: normal (absence of atrophic border, C0), limited or antral predominant distribution (C1 and C2), and extended or corpus predominant distribution (from C3 to O3).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> A recent retrospective American study revealed no cases of GC in patients where no atrophic border was identified (KT: C0).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> Contrarily, open types or extended distribution have been associated with an elevated risk of both current and future development of GC.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0520"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Atrophy in autoimmune gastritis</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The typical progression of the atrophic border, from the distal to the proximal compartment associated with Hp infection, may not apply to cases of autoimmune gastritis. In autoimmune gastritis, the disease specifically affects the fundic glands in the corpus and fundus, while the antrum remains usually unaffected (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Up to now, the trigger of the primary autoimmune gastritis is unknow. However, its pathogenesis appears to involve the TH-1 immune response against the H+/K+ ATPase pump on oxyntic (also called parietal) cells located in the fundic glands in the proximal compartment.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37,38</span></a> The production of anti-parietal cell antibodies and anti-intrinsic factor antibodies have been identified in 85–90% and 35–60%, respectively.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> Autoimmune gastritis presents a distinctive inflammatory pattern, primarily affecting the proximal compartment. It evolves from an early phase with a basal chronic infiltrate through a florid phase marked by diffuse lamina propria inflammation and pseudo-pyloric metaplasia phenomena to a concluding phase with established atrophic environment and decreased inflammation.</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The destruction of parietal cells, coupled with the link between anti-parietal cells and anti-intrinsic factor antibodies, hinders ileal absorption of vitamin B12, resulting in macrocytic anaemia due to B12 deficiency (pernicious anaemia). On the other hand, hypergastrinemia and decreased secretion of hydrochloric acid (achlorhydria) lead to an alkaline pH, making iron absorption difficult in the duodenum, resulting in iron deficiency anaemia, usually refractory to oral intake. Iron and B12 deficiency might also be present in cases of Hp infection, particularly in advanced stages of gastritis when atrophy severely affects the corpus. Unlike the chronic atrophic gastritis associated with Hp, where adenocarcinoma development is common, autoimmune aetiology is associated with hyperplasia of enterochromaffin-like cells, which is related to type 1 gastric neuroendocrine tumours.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37,38</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Intestinal metaplasia</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Metaplastic changes are considered a reparative response to significant damage and glandular loss. The initial reaction in the gastric body epithelium is often pseudo-pyloric metaplasia, where fundic glands are replaced by mucous-secreting glands similar in structure to those in the antrum. While pseudo-pyloric metaplasia may resolve after the cessation of injury, a second metaplastic gland phenotype, intestinal metaplasia, can persist even after Hp eradication.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0535"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a></p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">IM is characterized by the presence of intestinal goblet cells in the gastric glands and there are two types. Glands with complete IM exhibit well-developed goblet cells, enterocyte-like cells, and often Paneth cells at their bases, resembling small intestinal mucosa with straight crypt architecture. These complete IM glands are considered to have significant lesser neoplastic potential.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0540"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40–42</span></a> In contrast, incomplete IM glands feature immature goblet cells with irregular architecture and demonstrate MUC1 and MUC5AC immunohistochemical overexpression. Recent studies have identified spasmolytic polypeptide-expressing (SPEM) cell lineages in both pseudo-pyloric metaplasia and incomplete IM. The latter phenotype is considered a precancerous change, with the HE4 (Human Epididymis Protein 4) biomarker appearing to be specific to this process.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0555"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43,44</span></a> Among all types of metaplasia, incomplete IM is associated with the highest risk of gastric adenocarcinoma.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0545"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41,42</span></a></p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At endoscopy, IM can show different endoscopic appearances depending on the method of observation. Using white-light endoscopy, IM appears as slightly flat elevated with whitish patches.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18,19,45,46</span></a> Another observed sign with white-light endoscopy is the “map-like” redness, also known as mottled reddish depression, especially present in the post Hp-eradicated status.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46,47</span></a></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The presence of IM can be better visualized using HD white-light endoscopy and IEE techniques such as narrow-band imaging (NBI by Olympus) and similar technologies that utilize a narrow blue-light spectrum (e.g., BLI by Fuji, i-Scan OE-1 by Pentax, and VIST by Sonoscape).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48,49</span></a> Thus, other signs of IM have been reported, such as the white-opaque substance and the whitish-bluish crest (WBC)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0565"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45,48</span></a> (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig. 5</a>). In addition, in the simplified NBI classification, the WBC can be described as part of a regular tubulo-villous pattern.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0415"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> However, the endoscopic appearance of IM can be seen in detail by applying optical magnified endoscopy. Through optical zoom, the WBC of the tubulo-villous pattern can be differentiated into two important parts: the light-blue crest and the marginal turbid band (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig. 6</a>).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50,51</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Combining all the endoscopic signs of IM identified with HD, IEE and optical zoom, we can finally estimate the endoscopic severity and extension of IM by applying the EGGIM score. For this classification, five gastric areas should be assessed: the lesser and greater curvature of the antrum, incisura, and the lesser and greater curvature of the corpus. Each segment must be scored as 0 (absence of IM), 1 (presence of IM <30%), or 2 (presence of IM >30%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></a> The EGGIM classification ranges from 0 to 10 points. In contrast, in the Kyoto classification for Hp-related gastritis scores IM solely based on its extension: absence (0 points), presence in the antrum (1 point), or involvement in both the antrum and corpus (2 points).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> Both classifications are capable of estimating the risk of GC. A EGGIM score of ≥5 or an extended distribution of IM (according to the Kyoto classification) has been associated with a higher risk of current and future development of GC.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52–55</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Dysplasia and early gastric cancer</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The examination of the gastric mucosa should always be conducted systematically. Once glandular atrophy or IM in the stomach is identified during gastroscopy, it becomes crucial for endoscopists to remain vigilant about the increased risk of cancer. In the presence of chronic inflammation associated with glandular atrophy and IM, the detection of dysplasia/adenocarcinoma poses a significant challenge. To address this challenge, our focus should be on identifying visible lesions. Detecting a visible lesion involves recognizing an endoscopic abnormality (detection) that requires characterization to determine its real neoplastic condition.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a></p><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Detection of the visible lesion</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">GC can be overlooked in around 10% of cases during a gastroscopy due to the subtle appearance of early-stage cancer.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0625"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57–59</span></a> We should be suspicious of any irregularities or slight changes in colour tone (reddish/whitish or faded pale areas) or variations in concavity or convexity.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> HD white-light endoscopy continues to be the primary tool for detecting gastric lesions. However, IEE, including dye-based chromoendoscopy or virtual chromoendoscopy, could assist in the lesion detection phase.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Characterization of the visible lesion</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Differentiated (intestinal) adenocarcinoma typically exhibits a polypoid (0-I) or slightly elevated morphology (0-IIa) and is usually situated in the atrophic side of the atrophic border, surrounded by glandular atrophy and metaplastic changes. On the contrary, undifferentiated (diffuse) adenocarcinoma exhibits a flat (0-IIb), slightly depressed (0-IIc), or excavated/ulcerated morphology (0-III). These lesions are frequently situated at the boundary between the atrophic and non-atrophic sides of the atrophic border, or even within the non-atrophic area surrounded by non-metaplastic alterations.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46,61</span></a> White-light endoscopy, complemented by IEE (dye-based and virtual chromoendoscopy), serves to refine the characterization of the lesion, as illustrated in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig. 7</a>.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46,60</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Utilizing conventional white-light endoscopy allows us to differentiate advanced lesions with potential deep submucosal invasion (≥500<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>μm). These distinguishing features include a size of ≥30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm, an irregular surface, pronounced redness, marginal elevation, hypertrophy, or fusion of prominent folds, submucosal tumour-like raised margins, and the non-extension sign.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">IEE and optical magnifying endoscopy enhance the characterization and qualitative assessment of lesions without apparent endoscopic signs of deep submucosal invasion. These techniques enable the endoscopist to precisely identify the horizontal margins (demarcation line) and explore the distribution of the microvascular (MV) and microsurface (MS) patterns through the Vessel plus Surface (VS) classification.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a> A regular distribution of microvascular (MV) and microsurface (MS) patterns excludes the presence of cancer, whereas an irregular pattern or the absence of them raises suspicion of neoplasia (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig. 7</a>). This method has demonstrated its effectiveness and has been included in the MESDA-G approach in accordance with Japanese guidelines.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60,63</span></a> Despite these strategy and endoscopic features that aid in recognizing the neoplastic nature of a lesion and differentiating the histological type, biopsies are essential in this task.</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The histological examination ensures a comprehensive assessment of a lesion through complete resection. Presently, two endoscopic methods – endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) – are capable of ensuring the complete removal of the lesion. The comprehensive histological assessment of the lesion is crucial to determine the curative status of the endoscopic procedure. Early gastric cancer is defined as the presence of carcinoma within the mucosa (T1a) or submucosa (T1b), regardless of lymph node metastasis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a> However, it is worth noting that certain cases of high-grade dysplasia may be classified as T1a according to Japanese criteria. Currently, several dysplasia classification systems have been developed to standardize the definition of gastric dysplasia and adenocarcinoma, facilitating consistency between Western and Japanese pathologists.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0665"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65–68</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">The endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Gastric carcinogenesis through an endoscopic perspective using magnifying technology is effectively explained by the “antralization” process of the gastric body. <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0040">Fig. 8</a> highlights the notable similarity between the typical pyloric gland in the antrum and the tubulo-villous pattern of IM.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0040"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the antralization process of the gastric body, Hp infection plays a pivotal role in precipitating the cascade of premalignant changes. Initially, the corporal mucosa loses the regularity of collecting venules until their complete disappearance. Subsequently, the glandular opening transitions from a round to a linear shape, eventually adopting a distribution similar to the pyloric gland (ridged pattern), culminating in the aforementioned tubulo-villous pattern. Mild to moderate atrophy accompanies the gland's linear transformation. In cases of severe atrophy with the presence of IM, the gland resembles the characteristic pyloric pattern (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0045">Fig. 9</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0045"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These sequential alterations in the pattern of normal fundic glands are broadly categorized as foveolar forms (round and linear patterns) and groove types (ridged and tubulo-villous patterns), with the latter carrying a high probability of IM presence in histology.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> The magnifying endoscopy findings describing the antralization process are strongly aligned with the macroscopic description of the progression of the atrophic border in the KT classification, extending from the antrum to the corpus. Indeed, it is common to observe IM on the atrophic side of the atrophic border (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0050">Fig. 10</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0050"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The identification of glandular atrophy and IM should serve as a warning sign, and prompting a more thorough examination (a second detailed look) of the gastric mucosa to actively search for visible lesions containing dysplasia/adenocarcinoma. Recent developments in HD imaging with IEE and magnification facilitate precise delineation of lesion borders and assessment of regularity/irregularity (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig. 7</a>). Furthermore, the latest versions of all endoscopic brands provide HD quality, IEE, and optical zoom, as demonstrated in this review with all images being captured using the new brand Sonoscape (Medical Corp, Shenzhen, China). Based on the several endoscopic findings and signs described, we can confidently assert that the histological cascade model for gastric carcinogenesis is also identifiable from an endoscopic perspective (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0055">Fig. 11</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0055"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Conclusions</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Hp infection induces chronic inflammation, potentially leading to atrophic changes such as glandular atrophy and IM. Typically, these changes begin in the distal part (the antrum) and advance gradually to the proximal part of the stomach (the corpus and fundus). The presence of atrophic findings signifies an increased risk for dysplasia/adenocarcinoma development. These sequential changes, initially characterized in histology, have also been documented through various endoscopic classifications, which can be integrated into a comprehensive model: the endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis. Having this model in mind would enable endoscopists to promptly recognize the implications of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span> infection and the potential patient's risk of developing gastric cancer.</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pedro Delgado-Guillena declares: Sonoscape (educational activities and advisory), ST Endoscopy (educational activities and congresses fees), Norgine (congresses fee), and Casen Recordati (congresses fee). The remaining authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:13 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2172634" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841473" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2172635" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841474" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Normal gastric mucosa" ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Chronic gastric inflammation" ] 7 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Chronic atrophic gastritis" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Glandular atrophy" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Atrophy in autoimmune gastritis" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Intestinal metaplasia" ] ] ] 8 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Dysplasia and early gastric cancer" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Detection of the visible lesion" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Characterization of the visible lesion" ] ] ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "The endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 12 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2024-03-23" "fechaAceptado" => "2024-05-24" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841473" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span>" 1 => "Gastric cancer" 2 => "Gastric atrophy" 3 => "Intestinal metaplasia" 4 => "Gastroscopy" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841474" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span>" 1 => "Cáncer gástrico" 2 => "Atrofia gástrica" 3 => "Metaplasia intestinal" 4 => "Gastroscopia" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span>) is the main trigger of chronic gastric atrophy and the main leading cause of gastric cancer. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span> infects the normal gastric mucosa and can lead to chronic inflammation, glandular atrophy, intestinal metaplasia, dysplasia and finally adenocarcinoma. Chronic inflammation and gastric atrophy associated with Hp infection appear initially in the distal part of the stomach (the antrum) before progressing to the proximal part (the corpus–fundus). In recent years, endoscopic developments have allowed for the characterization of various gastric conditions including the normal mucosa (pyloric/fundic gland pattern and regular arrangement of collecting venules), Hp-related gastritis (Kyoto classification), glandular atrophy (Kimura–Takemoto classification), intestinal metaplasia (Endoscopic Grading of Gastric Intestinal Metaplasia), and dysplasia/adenocarcinoma (Vessel plus Surface classification). Despite being independent classifications, all these scales can be integrated into a single model: the endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis. This model would assist endoscopists in comprehending the process of gastric carcinogenesis and conducting a systematic examination during gastroscopy. Having this model in mind would enable endoscopists to promptly recognize the implications of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Hp</span> infection and the potential patient's risk of developing gastric cancer.</p></span>" ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Helicobacter pylori</span> (Hp) es el principal desencadenante de atrofia gástrica y la principal causa de cáncer gástrico. Hp infecta la mucosa gástrica normal y puede conducir a inflamación crónica, atrofia glandular, metaplasia intestinal, displasia y, finalmente, adenocarcinoma. La inflamación crónica y la atrofia gástrica producida por la infección por Hp aparecen inicialmente en la zona distal del estómago (el antro) y luego progresan a zonas proximales (como el cuerpo-fundus). En los últimos años, los avances endoscópicos han permitido caracterizar diferentes cambios a nivel de la mucosa gástrica, incluyendo los hallazgos de normalidad (el patrón de glándulas pilóricas/fúndicas y la distribución regular de las vénulas colectoras), la inflamación crónica relacionada con la infección por Hp (clasificación de Kyoto), la atrofia glandular (clasificación de Kimura-Takemoto), la metaplasia intestinal (clasificación Endoscopic Grading of Gastric Intestinal Metaplasia) y la displasia/adenocarcinoma gástrico (clasificación Vessel plus Surface). Aunque parecen clasificaciones independientes, todas estas escalas pueden ser integradas en un solo modelo: el modelo endoscópico de la carcinogénesis gástrica. Este modelo facilitaría el entendimiento del proceso de la carcinogénesis gástrica y ayudaría al endoscopista durante la exploración endoscópica de la mucosa gástrica. El conocimiento de este modelo nos permitiría reconocer inmediatamente el papel del Hp y el potencial riesgo de cáncer gástrico del paciente.</p></span>" ] ] "multimedia" => array:11 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1477 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 736836 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Endoscopic view of normal gastric mucosa. Images displaying normal endoscopic mucosal appearance at the corpus (A1–A2), distal lesser curvature of the corpus near incisura (B1–B2), and the antrum. The pyloric–fundic transitional area is not visible (C1–C2). Magnified images (85×) from each area show the “round pattern” and regular arrangement of collecting venules in the corpus (A3 and B3), and the “ridge pattern” in the antrum (C3). Images captured with Sonoscape technology (550z Endoscope and processor composed by 4-LED source of light).</p>" ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1273 "Ancho" => 1775 "Tamanyo" => 431484 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Endoscopic signs of chronic gastric inflammation secondary to Hp infection. Endoscopic signs of chronic gastric inflammation by Hp include patchy erythema in the greater curvature of the corpus (A) and oedema/enlargement of gastric folds (B). The absence of collecting venules (RAC−) in the distal part of the lesser curvature of the corpus is also observed (C). Additionally, nodularity in the anterior wall of the antrum can be seen (D). Images captured with Sonoscape technology.</p>" ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 1297 "Ancho" => 1800 "Tamanyo" => 468161 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The KT classification for chronic atrophic gastritis secondary to Hp infection. These pictures show the proximal progression of the atrophic border into the corpus through the lesser curvature: normal mucosa (C0), close types (C1, C2, and C3), and open types (O1, O2, and O3). Arrowheads indicate the location of the atrophic border. Images captured with high-definition/white-light endoscope and virtual chromoendoscopy SFI mode by Sonoscape. SFI: spectral focused imaging.</p> <p id="spar0070" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Modified with permission.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0505"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a>.</p>" ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1475 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 706858 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Endoscopic signs of gastric atrophy secondary to autoimmune gastritis. Images of autoimmune gastritis showing atrophic patchy distribution with areas of non-atrophic mucosa in the corpus (A, B and C). The antrum should be unaffected in this condition (D). Images captured with high-definition/white-light endoscope and virtual chromoendoscopy SFI mode by Sonoscape.</p>" ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 1957 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 685072 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Endoscopic signs of intestinal metaplasia. Intestinal metaplasia can appear as slightly flat elevated with whitish patches (A), “map-like” redness or mottled reddish depression (B), regular tubulo-villous pattern and the whitish-bluish crest (C) or papular lesions with umbilical depression (D). Images were captured with high-definition imaging by Sonoscape, which includes three modes: (i) white-light endoscope (A1, B1, C1 and D2), virtual chromoendoscopy (ii) SFI mode (A2, B2, C2, and D2), and (iii) VIST mode (A3, B3, C3 and D3). SFI: spectral focused imaging; VIST: versatile intelligent staining technology.</p> <p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Reproduced with permission.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a>.</p>" ] ] 5 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0030" "etiqueta" => "Figure 6" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr6.jpeg" "Alto" => 921 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 327325 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Endoscopic signs of intestinal metaplasia with magnification. Intestinal metaplasia captured at the atrophic border using magnified endoscopy (85×) by Sonoscape and virtual chromoendoscopy VIST mode (A). Amplified image of intestinal metaplasia (B) and its schematic representation showing the two parts of the whitish-bluish crest (WBC): the light-blue crest (LBC) and the marginal turbid band (MTB) (C). VIST: versatile intelligent staining technology.</p>" ] ] 6 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0035" "etiqueta" => "Figure 7" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr7.jpeg" "Alto" => 1961 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 908313 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Lesion assessment according to Vessel plus Surface approach using magnifying endoscopy. Lesions with a demarcation line assessed using the VS approach. In pictures A and B, the MV and MS patterns are regular (histology: intestinal metaplasia). In picture C, there is a focus of irregularity of the MV and MS associated with deposits of WOS (histology: intestinal metaplasia and findings of indefinite for dysplasia). In picture D, there is a distribution of MS and MV with an irregular pattern (histology: low-grade dysplasia). WOS: white-opaque substance. Pictures captured with magnifying endoscopy by Sonoscape (85×) using white-light (A1, B1, C1, and D1), virtual chromoendoscopy SFI mode (A2, B2, C2, and D2) and VIST mode (A3, B3, C3, and D3). SFI: spectral focused imaging; VIST: versatile intelligent staining technology.</p>" ] ] 7 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0040" "etiqueta" => "Figure 8" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr8.jpeg" "Alto" => 793 "Ancho" => 1400 "Tamanyo" => 168885 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The antralization process from an endoscopic point of view. The antralization phenomenon refers to the similarity between the pyloric gland in the antrum and the gastric body with intestinal metaplasia. Images captured with magnified endoscope by Sonoscape (85×) (A). A schematic representation of both types of patterns (B).</p>" ] ] 8 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0045" "etiqueta" => "Figure 9" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr9.jpeg" "Alto" => 2077 "Ancho" => 1925 "Tamanyo" => 544970 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Magnified view of different patterns of endoscopic atrophic changes. Images showing different endoscopic atrophic changes: glandular atrophy – fibrosis (triangle), lineal transformation (circle) and metaplastic transformation (arrow). Images captured with magnified endoscopy (85×) by Sonoscape and HD white-light (A), virtual chromoendoscopy SFI mode (B) and VIST mode (C). SFI: spectral focused imaging; VIST: versatile intelligent staining technology.</p>" ] ] 9 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0050" "etiqueta" => "Figure 10" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr10.jpeg" "Alto" => 1946 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 530492 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Intestinal metaplasia inside the atrophic border. Arrowheads indicate the direction of the advancement of the atrophic border. The arrows indicate the presence of IM inside the atrophic border. Pictures with white-light (A), virtual chromoendoscopy mode SFI (B) and mode VIST (C). SFI: spectral focused imaging; VIST: versatile intelligent staining technology.</p>" ] ] 10 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0055" "etiqueta" => "Figure 11" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr11.jpeg" "Alto" => 680 "Ancho" => 2050 "Tamanyo" => 264663 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0065" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis. 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The endoscopic model for gastric carcinogenesis and Helicobacter pylori infection: A potential visual mind-map during gastroscopy examination
El modelo endoscópico de la carcinogénesis gástrica y la infección por Helicobacter pylori: un potencial mapa mental durante la inspección endoscópica de la mucosa gástrica
Pedro Delgado-Guillenaa,
, Mireya Jimenob, Antonio López-Nuñeza, Henry Córdovac,d, Gloria Fernández-Esparrachc,d
Autor para correspondencia
a Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital of Merida, Merida, Spain
b Department of Pathology, Hospital of Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
c Department of Gastroenterology, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), IDIBAPS (Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer), Barcelona, Spain
d Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain