Imaging palpable tumors in pediatrics: Part 2

Llanos, D.; de la Pedraja, I.; Campos, L.; Armijo, J.; Ávila, L.F.
doi:10.1016/j.rxeng.2023.01.001
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also known as pilomatrixomas or &#8216;calcifying epitheliomas of Malherbe&#8217;&#44; are benign skin neoplasms arising from the cells at the base of hair follicles&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> They can appear at any age but are most frequent in children&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> They are the most commonly resected benign neoplasms in paediatric patients after epithelial cysts and lymph nodes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They are most commonly located on the head and neck&#44; most typically on the periauricular area and the cheeks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> The next most common sites are the upper and lower extremities and the trunk&#46; They do not appear on the palms of the hands&#44; the soles of the feet&#44; the genital area&#44; or mucous membranes&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A solitary neoplasm may appear or there may be several&#44; usually smaller than 2&#8239;cm&#46; The presence of seven or more suggests that a syndromic condition is associated &#40;namely Turner syndrome&#44; Gardner syndrome or myotonic dystrophy&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They present as painless&#44; slow-growing&#44; subcutaneous nodules&#46; They are hard&#44; with well-defined and irregular borders&#44; and are not adherent to underlying tissue&#46; The overlying skin may be normal in colour or more often present red&#44; blue or purple hues&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Even when the clinical presentation is typical&#44; an ultrasound is often requested to confirm the diagnosis and assess the extent to which the underlying tissue is affected&#46; An ultrasound scan reveals well-defined round subcutaneous nodules of heterogeneous echogenicity with scattered hyperechoic foci within the nodules&#44; corresponding to microcalcifications&#44; resulting in poor sound transmission or posterior acoustic shadowing&#46; Typical features are the presence of a hypoechoic halo around the lesion&#44; increased echogenicity of the surrounding subcutaneous cellular tissue and a predominantly peripheral flow in the Doppler study &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> They can become completely calcified&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the case of typical clinical and ultrasound findings&#44; no further imaging tests are performed&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Despite being benign lesions&#44; they are usually removed because of the slight possibility of malignant degeneration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Reoccurrence is very rare&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Myofibroblastic tumours</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Myofibroblastic tumours belong to a large and heterogeneous subgroup of mesenchymal neoplasms which develop in a range of different ways from lesions that are self-limiting to those that are malignant&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> It would go beyond the scope of this article to describe each one individually&#46; However&#44; we will briefly analyse the ones that we are most likely to encounter&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Locally aggressive and malignant myofibroblastic neoplasms are masses with highly variable and often indeterminate radiological features&#46; Histological examination is usually necessary for diagnosis&#46; We are more interested in gaining a good understanding of the typical clinical and radiological features of benign myofibroblastic neoplasms&#44; since they are more frequent and a good number of them are self-limiting&#44; meaning that a conservative approach may be adopted if there is a strong radiological suspicion&#46;</p><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Fibromatosis colli</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fibromatosis colli tumours are benign&#44; self-limiting masses that exclusively affect the sternocleidomastoid muscle &#40;SCM&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Their origin is uncertain&#44; but they are associated with traumatic birth and fetal malposition&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They present in new-born infants&#44; usually as early as the second week of life&#44; as a hard lateral neck mass&#46; They are a frequent cause of congenital torticollis&#44; as the shortening of the SCM caused by fibrosis can lead to the head tilting towards the affected side&#44; and chin deviation towards the contralateral side&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although the clinical presentation is distinctive&#44; an ultrasound scan is usually requested to confirm the diagnosis and to rule out other causes of neck masses&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ultrasonography shows focal or diffuse thickening of the SCM&#44; which usually takes on a spindle-shaped morphology&#44; affecting the distal half of the SCM to a greater extent &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>A and B&#41;&#46; In the thickened area&#44; the muscle fibres lose their normal appearance and a poorly-defined area of heterogeneous echogenicity is identified&#44; but no masses or enlarged lymph nodes are seen&#46; A Doppler study may show hyperemia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Resolution occurs spontaneously in approximately 4&#8211;8 months&#46; Physiotherapy is usually used to accelerate healing and avoid cranial deformities associated with torticollis&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Myositis ossificians</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Myositis ossificans &#40;MO&#41; is a benign heterotopic ossification in soft tissue&#46; The condition often occurs in skeletal muscle tissue&#44; but can also affect tendons&#44; nerves and subcutaneous fat&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The typical clinical profile is that of an adolescent presenting with a painful lump on a limb&#44; and a history of trauma to the area&#46; Sometimes the presentation is atypical&#44; as there is no history of trauma or pain&#44; or the site of onset or age may be less typical&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Imaging reveals a soft tissue mass with peripheral calcification &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>C and D&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> This peripheral calcification is the key to the diagnosis&#44; as calcifications are usually central in soft tissue sarcomas&#46; It is often easier to identify the calcium distribution with a computed tomography &#40;CT&#41; scan&#46; Sometimes in the early stages&#44; calcium is not yet visible&#44; or it might not clearly present the characteristic circumferential pattern&#46; If the imaging findings are inconclusive&#44; but there is a suspicion of MO&#44; a follow-up radiograph or CT scan after two weeks will reveal the progression of calcification and facilitate the diagnosis&#46; It is not uncommon for periosteal reaction to present in adjacent bone&#46;</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Magnetic resonance imaging &#40;MRI&#41; and biopsies are best avoided&#44; especially in the early stages&#46; Calcium can be difficult to detect on MRIs and&#44; as with biopsy&#44; MO can mimic soft tissue sarcomas&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> It is the classic example of a &#8220;do not touch&#8221; soft tissue lesion&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">MO is usually self-limiting and greatly diminishes or completely disappears within approximately two years&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Nodular fasciitis</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nodular fasciitis is a benign myofibroblastic tumour&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Due to their rapid initial growth as well as high cellularity and mitotic activity in biopsy samples&#44; they have also been referred to as &#8220;nodular pseudosarcomatous fasciitis&#8221;&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They typically manifest in adolescent patients as solitary&#44; fast-growing&#44; palpable and occasionally painful nodules&#46;</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Most lesions occur in the subcutaneous cellular tissue and there is usually extensive contact with muscle fascia&#46; Although they can occur anywhere in the body&#44; the upper extremities are most frequently affected &#40;46&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a></p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">While they may be self-limiting&#44; these are often removed because of aggressive aspects that are observed in imaging and biopsy&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On ultrasound&#44; they are predominantly visible as hypoechoic nodular lesions with lobulated borders that are in contact with&#44; or even impinging on&#44; muscle fascia&#46; A perilesional hyperechoic halo and peripheral intralesional hyperechoic nodular images are common &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>A&#41;&#46; They may show a moderate flow on a colour Doppler ultrasound&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">MRI is not often very useful as these lesions do not have a specific appearance&#44; appearing as isointense nodules with muscle on T1&#44; hyperintense on T2 and with variable gadolinium enhancement&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Infantile myofibroma</span><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Infantile myofibromas are the most common fibrous tumours in infants&#46; Most cases involve a solitary tumour&#44; but the term &#8220;myofibromatosis&#8221; is used when multiple tumours are present&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> They present as palpable nodules with normal or slightly purple skin discolouration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> They usually form on the skin or in muscle tissue in the head&#44; neck or trunk&#59; bone and visceral involvement is also possible&#46; Most lesions disappear spontaneously within two years&#44; so the prognosis is excellent with the exception of cases with multiple visceral involvement&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ultrasonography is the most commonly used diagnostic technique&#44; although due to the variable and non-specific appearance of this tumour&#44; surgical removal is usually necessary for final diagnosis&#46; They most typically present as nodules with anechoic centres&#44; with thin peripheral calcifications and solid hypoechoic surrounding areas &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>B&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Desmoid-type fibromatosis</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Desmoid-type fibromatosis tumours&#44; also known as desmoid tumours&#44; are a group of locally aggressive fibrous mesenchymal neoplasms that do not metastasise to distant sites&#46;</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They usually present as firm palpable masses&#44; most commonly appearing in the muscle tissue of the extremities&#44; followed by the head-neck region and the trunk&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> The presence of an abdominal desmoid tumour is strongly associated with the presence of Familial adenomatous polyposis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a></p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ultrasounds show lesions of variable echogenicity&#44; often with imprecise borders &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>A&#41;&#46; In MRIs&#44; this kind of tumour should be suspected if low signal areas are detected in T2&#44; as this is typical of fibrous lesions &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>B and C&#41;&#46; Gadolinium enhancement is variable&#46; While the scans may raise suspicions&#44; biopsy is recommended before making any therapeutic decisions&#46; Stable asymptomatic lesions are usually monitored&#44; while symptomatic lesions should be treated&#44; with surgery being the treatment of choice wherever technically possible&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Gardner fibroma</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Gardner fibromas are benign fibrous soft-tissue lesions&#46; They present as painless&#44; often paraspinal&#44; tumours in children under 10 years of age&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Their radiological appearance is very distinctive&#46; On ultrasound&#44; they are homogeneously hyperechoic spindle-shaped lesions&#46; On MRI&#44; they have a low signal on T1 and T2&#44; due to their fibrous nature &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 5</a>&#41;&#46; They resemble significantly thickened muscle fascia&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Even though these lesions are benign and it is not clear that the patient will benefit from their removal&#44; the importance of recognising these masses lies in the fact that&#44; like abdominal desmoid fibromatosis&#44; they are a classic sentinel sign of several familial adenomatous polyposis syndromes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> For this reason&#44; the patient and immediate family members should be screened for these disorders early and treated accordingly&#46; A Gardner fibroma may precede the development of colon polyps&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Thyroglossal cysts</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Thyroglossal cysts are the most common congenital cystic lesions of the neck affecting children&#46; The thyroid gland develops at the base of the tongue in the first weeks of gestation and migrates to its normal position via the thyroglossal duct&#44; which is closely related to the forming hyoid bone&#46; If&#44; following thyroid descent&#44; the thyroglossal duct does not completely involute&#44; epithelial remnants of the duct persist and a cyst is formed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;25</span></a></p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cysts can occur anywhere in the thyroglossal duct&#44; although 85&#37; are infrahyoid or closely related to the hyoid&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They usually present as a painless&#44; slow-growing nodule in the anterior region of the neck&#44; at or near the midline&#46; They usually move when the patient moves their tongue or swallows&#46; They may be complicated by infection or bleeding&#46; Malignancy is very rare&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ultrasound is the test of choice to confirm the diagnosis and rule out complications&#46; In the absence of complications&#44; these cysts present as well-defined nodules that are anechoic or hypoechoic depending on their content&#44; and which reveal posterior acoustic enhancement and an absence of flow in Doppler ultrasound studies &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 6</a>A&#41;&#46; When complications are present&#44; their echogenicity is variable and heterogeneous&#44; and there are usually adjacent inflammatory changes&#46; MRIs are generally unnecessary and show signals that are hypointense in T1 and hyperintense in T2&#44; although hyperintensity may be present in T1 due to the presence of proteinaceous content&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> When complications are present&#44; their content is more heterogeneous and surrounding inflammatory changes are observed&#44; such as in the ultrasound scan&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The differential diagnosis typically involves submental lymph nodes and dermoid cysts in the anterior midline of the neck&#46; If the lymph nodes do not present complications&#44; they have a central fatty hilum and are easy to differentiate&#46; When purulent or necrotic contents are found &#40;for example&#44; in non-tuberculous mycobacterial adenitis&#41; they may have a similar sonographic appearance&#44; and the relationship between the lesion and the hyoid is helpful in deciding between different diagnoses&#46; Dermoid cysts exhibit posterior enhancement&#44; but have a uniform&#44; medium echogenicity and do not come into contact with the hyoid&#46;</p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ultrasound should also be used to confirm that the thyroid gland is correctly positioned and to rule out the presence of ectopic thyroid tissue&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a></p><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Treatment involves surgical resection&#44; usually using the Sistrunk procedure&#44; which includes the cyst&#44; its tract and the middle third of the hyoid to prevent recurrence&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Branchial cleft cysts</span><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These are benign lesions caused by anomalies in the closure and reabsorption of the branchial structure&#46; They usually present clinically as slow-growing and movable neck masses that are typically painless except if they bleed or become infected&#46; They are classified according to the relevant branchial arch&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a></p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Second branchial cleft cysts are the most common &#40;accounting for more than 90&#37;&#41;&#46; They can be located anywhere in the space between the anterior border of the SCM muscle and the parapharyngeal region&#44; although their most frequent location is lateral to the carotid vessels&#44; between the SCM muscle and the submandibular gland&#46; They most frequently present when the patient is in the second or third decade of life&#46;</p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">First branchial cleft cysts &#40;5&#37;&#8211;8&#37;&#41; are closely associated with the auricle&#44; the external auditory canal and the parotid gland&#46; They occur most frequently in children under 10 years of age&#46;</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Third and fourth branchial cleft cysts are very rare&#46;</p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These cysts are initially assessed by ultrasound &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 6</a>B&#41;&#44; where they appear as well-defined&#44; thin-walled lesions with contents that are usually anechoic&#44; although sometimes they may be echogenic or even solid in appearance &#40;but without flow on Doppler&#41;&#46; CT scans and MRI are performed if there are diagnostic uncertainties or for surgical planning &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 6</a>C&#41;&#46; In both techniques&#44; these lesions exhibit thin walls and liquid content&#46; If superinfection or bleeding is present&#44; the wall is thickened and the appearance of the contents changes&#46;</p><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Treatment is surgical resection&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Ectopic cervical thymus</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">If the thymus fails in any way to descend to the mediastinum during embryonic development&#44; ectopic thymic remnants may develop&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> These are rare lesions&#44; probably underdiagnosed because they are asymptomatic&#46;</p><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They present in infants as firm neck masses&#46; They can occur anywhere along the pathway of the thymopharyngeal duct&#44; from the angle of the mandible to the mediastinum&#44; with the most typical locations being the lateral cervical region &#40;closely related to the neurovascular bundle of the neck&#41; and the thyroid gland&#46; In 85&#37; of cases&#44; they are unilateral&#46;</p><p id="par0250" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main diagnostic test used is ultrasound &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>A and B&#41;&#46; The ultrasound appearance of the thymus is very distinctive and the ectopic thymus exhibits an identical echotexture to that of the orthotopic thymus&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> MRI is only necessary in cases of diagnostic uncertainty or to assess large lesions&#46; On MRI&#44; the signal intensity is identical to that of the mediastinal thymus in all sequences &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>C and D&#41;&#46; Severely restricted diffusion is normal in the thymus of infants &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>E&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0255" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">If the findings are typical&#44; biopsy is not recommended and is moreover&#44; often inconclusive&#46; Conservative management is recommended&#46; Ectopic thymic tissue involutes in parallel to orthotopic thymic tissue&#44; so only ultrasound monitoring is recommended&#46; Malignant transformation to a thymoma is exceptional&#44; the risk being similar to that of the mediastinal thymus&#46; Surgery is only considered in the case of large&#44; symptomatic lesions&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Epigastric hernia</span><p id="par0260" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These hernias are common and present as palpable nodules in the midline of the anterior abdominal wall&#44; somewhere between the xiphoid process and the umbilicus&#46;</p><p id="par0265" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They correspond to small accumulations of properitoneal fat herniated through millimetric defects in the linea alba&#46; The defect is so small that there is usually no space for other abdominal contents to herniate&#46; It is not uncommon for the same patient to have two or more hernias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p><p id="par0270" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The defect in the linea alba and herniation of the properitoneal fat can be seen on ultrasound&#46;</p><p id="par0275" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They are usually surgically repaired&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Prominent costal cartilage</span><p id="par0280" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A common complaint&#44; usually in adolescent boys&#44; involving a hard&#44; painless lump on the anterior chest wall&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> They are usually caused by an asymmetry in the costal cartilages&#44; with one or more being more convex towards the front on the prominent side&#46; They may be associated with sternal tilt&#46; It is very prevalent&#44; affecting one third of the population&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> and is regarded as a normal variant&#46; In our experience&#44; it is more common for the prominence to be on the left side of the sternum&#46;</p><p id="par0285" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">If there is clinical doubt&#44; ultrasound is sufficient to confirm costal cartilage asymmetry<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> and rule out masses of other origins&#44; without the need to resort to other tests&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Self-Limiting Sternal Tumours of Childhood &#40;SELSTOC&#41;</span><p id="par0290" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Self-Limiting Sternal Tumours of Childhood &#40;SELSTOC&#41; are a relatively little-known condition involving self-limiting aseptic inflammation of unknown aetiology in the sternums of young children &#40;the condition has not been reported in children over five years old&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#8211;39</span></a> Awareness of their existence helps prevent unnecessary biopsies&#46;</p><p id="par0295" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These lesions are asymptomatic or not very painful&#44; appearing as a 2&#8211;3&#8239;cm presternal or parasternal tumour&#46; There may be reddening of the skin&#46; The child is sometimes brought in for another reason and the comorbidities &#40;fever&#44; respiratory infection&#44; etc&#46;&#41; generate diagnostic confusion&#46; There are no abnormalities in the blood tests&#46;</p><p id="par0300" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The initial study should be performed with ultrasound&#46; The tumour exhibits an hourglass-shaped hypoechoic lesion between the ossification nuclei of the sternum&#44; separating them and giving the appearance of bone destruction &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0040">Fig&#46; 8</a>&#41;&#46; When clinical and ultrasound findings are typical&#44; a wait-and-see approach is usually maintained&#44; with complete resolution typically occurring within one to six months&#46; No further imaging tests are usually necessary&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0040"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0305" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">If there is any uncertainty about the diagnosis or it does not follow the expected course&#44; a biopsy is performed to rule out a neoplastic process or osteomyelitis&#46; A non-specific inflammatory infiltrate is typically found with no evidence of neoplastic cells&#46; Microbiological studies come back negative&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Lipoma and lipoblastoma</span><p id="par0310" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lipomas are benign lesions comprised of encapsulated mature adipocytes&#46; While they are the most common adipocytic tumour in children&#44; they are seen much more frequently in adults&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> On ultrasound&#44; lipomas are identified as lesions with well-defined borders and homogeneous echogenicity&#44; which may be higher or lower depending on the proportion of water and fat present&#46; Their adipose nature can be confirmed by MRI&#46;</p><p id="par0315" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The next most common adipocytic tumours in children are lipoblastomas&#46; These are benign tumours comprised of mature and immature adipocytes&#46; They are more frequent in children under three years of age and very rare after the age of eight&#46; On ultrasound&#44; these lesions are usually hyperechoic&#44; but it is not uncommon for them to exhibit hypoechoic or cystic areas due to their fibromyxoid content&#46; On MRI it is usual to see an encapsulated lesion with contents that are not completely fatty&#44; especially at the periphery of the lesion&#46; Treatment is surgical&#44; with less than 20&#37; risk of local recurrence&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Soft tissue sarcomas</span><p id="par0320" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sarcomas are malignant solid tumours of mesenchymal cell origin&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> When palpable&#44; they are usually referred for assessment with ultrasound&#44; where their appearance is variable&#46; On MRI they have a heterogeneous signal that is isointense or hypointense on T1 and hyperintense on T2&#44; with areas of enhancement after the administration of contrast&#59; they frequently exhibit restricted diffusion&#46;</p><p id="par0325" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In some instances&#44; imaging tests do not provide a conclusive diagnosis&#44; but they are of great value in obtaining topographical information for planning a biopsy or surgery&#44; as well as for assessing responses to treatment&#46; It is worth remembering that&#44; in general&#44; when a soft tissue lesion is not clearly a self-limiting or benign entity&#44; it should at least be closely monitored and&#44; in most cases&#44; be removed or at least biopsied&#46;</p><p id="par0330" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The most frequently encountered soft tissue sarcomas in children are rhabdomyosarcoma&#44; synovial sarcoma and Ewing&#8217;s sarcoma&#46;</p><p id="par0335" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Rhabdomyosarcomas</span> are the most common childhood sarcomas&#46; The average age at diagnosis is five years&#46; Although they are most commonly found in the head-neck region and the genitourinary tract&#44; 20&#37; occur in the extremities&#46;</p><p id="par0340" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Synovial sarcomas</span> are the next most common sarcomas in children&#46; Their name is misleading as&#44; although they usually occur near joints&#44; they do not originate from the synovium and most are extra-articular&#46; They are usually well-demarcated lesions with variable radiological features&#44; ranging from solid tumours with cystic and bleeding areas to completely cystic lesions with an &#8220;innocent&#8221; appearance that can be mistaken for benign lesions such as ganglions&#46; On MRI&#44; the presence of a soft tissue mass with three different signal intensities on T2 is considered highly indicative of synovial sarcoma&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a></p><p id="par0345" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ewing&#8217;s sarcomas</span> are primitive small round cell tumours&#46; They are typically found in patients under 20 years of age and&#44; although they are most frequently found in bone&#44; 20&#37; are extra-skeletal&#46; They often present as a palpable mass&#44; often with local pain &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0045">Fig&#46; 9</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0045"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Peripheral neurogenic tumours</span><p id="par0350" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The vast majority are benign peripheral nerve sheath tumours &#40;PNSTs&#41;&#46; Other entities&#44; such as neural fibrolipoma and malignant lesions&#44; are much less common&#46; There are two types of PNST&#58; schwannomas &#40;also called neurilemomas or neurinomas&#41; and neurofibromas&#46; They usually appear between the age of twenty and thirty&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a></p><p id="par0355" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They generally present as solitary lesions&#46; Multiple lesions are more common in the case of neurofibromas in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 &#40;NF-1&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0360" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They are most frequently located in the head and neck area&#44; the flexor surface of the extremities&#44; mediastinum and retroperitoneum&#44; usually as painless&#44; slow-growing masses&#46; Sometimes&#44; especially in the case of large lesions&#44; they may be associated with pain or other neurological symptoms&#46;</p><p id="par0365" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In imaging tests &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0050">Fig&#46; 10</a>&#41; they exhibit well-defined spherical or spindle-shaped masses&#46; They are found along a peripheral nerve&#44; whether proximal or distal&#44; and this is one of the most specific signs to indicate their neurogenic origin&#46; On ultrasound&#44; they are usually homogeneous hypoechoic lesions with low flow in the Doppler study&#46; On MRI&#44; they are usually hypointense on T1 and hyperintense on T2&#46; The presence of a central hypointense area in T2 &#40;target sign&#41; is the most distinctive feature and upon administration of intravenous contrast&#44; central enhancement may be present&#46; Sometimes there is muscle atrophy in the muscles innervated by the affected nerve&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0050"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0370" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It may be impossible to differentiate between schwannomas and neurofibromas through imaging&#44; although the former more frequently present cystic&#44; haemorrhagic or necrotic areas&#44; so their signal may be more heterogeneous&#46; Neurofibromas exhibit an intrinsic relationship with the nerve&#44; whereas schwannomas are eccentric&#44; so it is easier to distinguish between them in large lesions by assessing their relationship with the nerve of origin&#46;</p><p id="par0375" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">They are treated surgically&#46; The neurofibroma is inseparable from the nerve&#44; which cannot therefore be preserved in surgery&#44; whereas schwannomas are eccentric and so the nerve can usually be conserved&#46;</p><p id="par0380" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Malignant PNSTs usually correspond to the malignant transformation of a plexiform neurofibroma &#40;a variant of neurofibroma that affects a longer segment of the nerve and its branches&#44; and it is indicative of NF-1&#41;&#46; On MRI&#44; the heterogeneity of the lesion&#44; peripheral enhancement and perilesional oedema are reasons to suspect malignancy&#44; although sensitivity and specificity for differentiating between benign and malignant lesions is relatively low&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">Auricular pseudocysts</span><p id="par0385" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Auricular pseudocysts consist of small fluid collections in the cartilage of the auricle&#46; Their origin is attributed to repeated trauma&#46; Until recently they were rare in paediatric patients &#40;sometimes seen in children with the habit of repeatedly bending their ears&#41;&#44; but with the prolonged use of facemasks and earphones&#44; their frequency has increased&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> On examination&#44; they are small painless nodules in the helix&#44; with normal colour or slight redness &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0055">Fig&#46; 11</a>A&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0055"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0390" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As these are relatively little-known lesions&#44; an ultrasound scan is often requested&#46; Small &#8220;cysts&#8221; are seen in the thick cartilage of the auricle &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0055">Fig&#46; 11</a>B and C&#41;&#46; Their echogenicity varies from anechoic to hyperechoic&#44; depending on their haematic content&#46; If the trauma ceases&#44; they usually resolve on their own&#44; but if they are very large or persistent&#44; they may be aspirated&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0100" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Conclusion</span><p id="par0395" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Palpable tumours in children are one of the most common reasons for consultations in paediatric radiology&#46; In this two-part article series&#44; we have examined the clinical and radiological features of the most common kinds&#46; They are usually benign lesions&#44; although it is important always to be alert to the possibility of finding a more serious disease&#46;</p><p id="par0400" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Ultrasound is the most widely used imaging technique due to its availability&#44; safety and high-quality results&#46; An accurate radiological diagnosis is extremely important&#44; because it usually determines the course of care to be followed and can prevent unnecessary tests&#44; iatrogenesis and delays&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0105" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Authors</span><p id="par0405" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">1&#46;</span><p id="par0410" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Research coordinators&#58; DL and IP&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;</span><p id="par0415" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Development of study concept&#58; DL and IP&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;</span><p id="par0420" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Study design&#58; DL and IP&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">4&#46;</span><p id="par0425" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Data collection&#58; DL&#44; IP and LC&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">5&#46;</span><p id="par0430" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Data analysis and interpretation&#58; DL and IP&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">6&#46;</span><p id="par0435" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Statistical processing&#58; not applicable&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">7&#46;</span><p id="par0440" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Literature search&#58; DL and IP&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">8&#46;</span><p id="par0445" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Article authors&#58; DL&#44; IP&#44; LC and LA&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">9&#46;</span><p id="par0450" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Critical review of the manuscript with intellectually relevant contributions&#58; DL&#44; IP&#44; LC&#44; JA and LA&#46;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0050"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">10&#46;</span><p id="par0455" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Approval of the final version&#58; DL&#44; IP&#44; LC&#44; JA and LA&#46;</p></li></ul></p></span><span id="sec0110" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Conflict of interests</span><p id="par0460" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "identificador" => "xres1854988"
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          "titulo" => "Introduction"
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          "titulo" => "Pilomatricoma"
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          "titulo" => "Myofibroblastic tumours"
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              "identificador" => "sec0020"
              "titulo" => "Fibromatosis colli"
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              "titulo" => "Myositis ossificians"
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            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0030"
              "titulo" => "Nodular fasciitis"
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            3 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0035"
              "titulo" => "Infantile myofibroma"
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            4 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0040"
              "titulo" => "Desmoid-type fibromatosis"
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              "titulo" => "Gardner fibroma"
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          "titulo" => "Thyroglossal cysts"
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          "titulo" => "Branchial cleft cysts"
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          "identificador" => "sec0060"
          "titulo" => "Ectopic cervical thymus"
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          "titulo" => "Epigastric hernia"
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          "identificador" => "sec0070"
          "titulo" => "Prominent costal cartilage"
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        12 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0075"
          "titulo" => "Self-Limiting Sternal Tumours of Childhood &#40;SELSTOC&#41;"
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        13 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0080"
          "titulo" => "Lipoma and lipoblastoma"
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          "identificador" => "sec0085"
          "titulo" => "Soft tissue sarcomas"
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          "identificador" => "sec0090"
          "titulo" => "Peripheral neurogenic tumours"
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          "titulo" => "Auricular pseudocysts"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2022-07-25"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2022-09-03"
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            2 => "Nodular fasciitis"
            3 => "Infantile myofibroma"
            4 => "Fibromatosis"
            5 => "Desmoid tumor"
            6 => "Gardner fibroma"
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            1 => "Miositis osificante"
            2 => "Fascitis nodular"
            3 => "Miofibroma infantil"
            4 => "Fibromatosis"
            5 => "Desmoide"
            6 => "Fibroma de Gardner"
            7 => "SELSTOC"
            8 => "Seudoquiste auricular"
            9 => "Schwannoma"
            10 => "Timo ect&#243;pico"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Palpable tumors in children are a common reason for consulting a radiologist&#46; The origin of these lesions varies widely&#44; and although they are common&#44; classic radiology books do not cover some of them&#46;</p><p id="spar0065" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">This series of two articles aims to review the clinical and radiological characteristics of a selection of palpable tumors in children that radiologists need to be familiar with&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0070" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Las tumoraciones palpables en los ni&#241;os son un motivo de consulta muy habitual para el radi&#243;logo&#46; El origen de las lesiones es muy variado&#44; y algunas de ellas no reciben atenci&#243;n en los libros cl&#225;sicos de Radiolog&#237;a&#44; pese a encontrarse frecuentemente&#46;</p><p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El objetivo de esta serie de 2 art&#237;culos es revisar las caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nico-radiol&#243;gicas de una selecci&#243;n de estas entidades que consideramos importante conocer&#46;</p></span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#40;A&#41; Clinical image of a 7-year-old girl with a preauricular pilomatricoma&#46; &#40;B&#41; Grey-scale ultrasound image showing a lesion of heterogeneous echogenicity&#44; with the presence of punctate hyperechoic foci compatible with microcalcifications&#46; Note the hypoechoic halo at the periphery of the lesion&#46; &#40;C&#41; Microvascular Doppler ultrasound image showing peripheral flow&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#40;A&#41; Thyroglossal cyst&#46; Axial grey-scale ultrasound image of a nodule in the anterior midline of the neck in a 4-year-old boy&#46; A hypoechoic lesion with well-defined borders is seen in intimate contact with the body of the hyoid bone &#40;arrowheads&#41; &#40;SM&#58; submandibular gland&#41;&#46; &#40;B&#41; Cyst of the second branchial arch&#46; Axial grey scale ultrasound image of the right lateral neck region&#46; A cystic lesion &#40;arrow&#41; is seen adjacent to the sternocleidomastoid muscle &#40;SCM&#41;&#46; &#40;C&#41; Axial image of the pre-surgical contrast-enhanced CT scan of the previous patient&#46; The cyst exhibits a thin wall with enhancement &#40;arrow&#41; and is located between the SCM and the carotid vessels&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Ectopic cervical thymus&#46; &#40;A and B&#41; Grey-scale ultrasound images of a 2-month-old infant with a palpable soft right lateral neck mass&#46; The lesion &#40;A&#44; arrows&#41; has an identical echotexture to that of the orthotopic thymus &#40;B&#41; &#40;&#42;&#58; costal cartilage&#41;&#46; &#40;C and D&#41; Coronal plane T1-weighted &#40;C&#41; and T2-weighted fat-saturated &#40;D&#41; MRI images with identical signal intensity in the cervical lesion and mediastinal thymus &#40;arrows&#41;&#46; &#40;E&#41; Diffusion and ADC-weighted MRI images show the severely restricted diffusion of the lesion &#40;arrows&#41;&#44; a normal finding in the thymus of an infant&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">SELSTOC&#46; &#40;A&#41; Sagittal plane grey-scale ultrasound image of a 2-year-old boy with a hard&#44; painless presternal nodule&#46; The lesion &#40;arrows&#41; is predominantly hypoechoic and is located between the ossification nuclei of the sternum&#44; separating them &#40;arrowheads&#41;&#46; &#40;B&#41; Sagittal plane grey-scale ultrasound image of a 4-year-old girl with clinical and imaging findings similar to those of the previous patient&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Ewing&#8217;s sarcoma&#46; &#40;A&#41; Grey-scale ultrasound image of a 13-year-old male referred for a palpable left supraclavicular mass&#46; We observe a lesion of heterogeneous echogenicity with fine linear calcifications &#40;&#8220;the rising sun&#8221;&#44; arrow&#41;&#46; &#40;B&#41; Chest X-ray of the same patient showing a left extrapleural mass originating from the second rib &#40;arrow&#41;&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Schwannoma of the radial nerve&#46; &#40;A&#41; Microvascular Doppler ultrasound image of an 11-year-old girl with a palpable nodule on the outer surface of the forearm&#46; There is a hypoechoic oval lesion with well-defined borders and a slightly hyperechoic centre&#44; with internal flow&#46; &#40;B&#41; T1-weighted MRI image in the coronal plane&#46; There is eccentric growth of the lesion from the radial nerve &#40;arrows&#41;&#46; &#40;C&#41; T2-weighted MRI image with fat suppression in the coronal plane&#46; The periphery of the lesion is hyperintense and the central region is hypointense &#40;&#8220;target&#8221; sign&#41;&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#40;A&#41; Clinical image of a 12-year-old boy with three auricular pseudocysts &#40;arrow&#41;&#46; History of wearing a facemask throughout the school day&#46; &#40;B and C&#41; Grey-scale ultrasound of the lesions&#46; Small cysts with echogenic content are seen in the auricular cartilage &#40;arrows&#41;&#46;</p>"
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      "titulo" => "References"
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                            0 => "S&#46;F&#46; Lin"
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                        "fecha" => "2020"
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                        0 => array:2 [
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                            0 => "A&#46; Flynn"
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.7860/JCDR/2017/27589.10260"
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                        "fecha" => "2017"
                        "volumen" => "11"
                        "paginaInicial" => "ED27"
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                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:5 [
                            0 => "K&#46;M&#46; Sargar"
                            1 => "E&#46;F&#46; Sheybani"
                            2 => "A&#46; Shenoy"
                            3 => "J&#46; Aranake-Chrisinger"
                            4 => "G&#46; Khanna"
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                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
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                        "fecha" => "2016"
                        "volumen" => "36"
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                          "etal" => false
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                      "Libro" => array:4 [
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                        "fecha" => "2019"
                        "editorial" => "Wolters Kluwer"
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                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:2 [
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                            1 => "S&#46;D&#46; John"
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                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
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                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1016/j.rcl.2011.05.005"
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                        "editorial" => "Elsevier"
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                        0 => array:2 [
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                            1 => "C&#46; Azzopardi"
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                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
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                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:2 [
                      "doi" => "10.1016/j.jcot.2021.03.005"
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                        "fecha" => "2021"
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                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
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                      "autores" => array:1 [
                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:1 [
                            0 => "C&#46;A&#46; Helms"
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                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Libro" => array:4 [
                        "edicion" => "5th ed&#46;"
                        "fecha" => "2020"
                        "editorial" => "Elsevier"
                        "editorialLocalizacion" => "Filadelfia"
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                        0 => array:2 [
                          "etal" => false
                          "autores" => array:3 [
                            0 => "S&#46; Habibollahi"
                            1 => "S&#46; Lozano-Calderon"
                            2 => "C&#46;Y&#46; Chang"
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