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A Narrative Review" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "es" => true "en" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "es" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figura 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1444 "Ancho" => 3179 "Tamanyo" => 221305 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "es" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Línea del tiempo para estudios de laboratorio y gabinete<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0745"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49,50,79–81</span></a>. Litemia: 1.<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span> al mes y trimestralmente las siguientes. A partir de 1.<span class="elsevierStyleSup">er</span> año, semestrales. Estudios de laboratorio y gabinete: protocolos completos en cuadros superiores. 1.<span class="elsevierStyleSup">er</span> año: perfil tiroideo y glucosa. 2.<span class="elsevierStyleSup">o</span> año: ultrasonido tiroideo. 3.<span class="elsevierStyleSup">er</span> año: protocolo similar al basal. 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Alarcón, Miriam Lucio, Elvia Velásquez, Alina Uribe, Antonio Lozano-Vargas, José Ordoñez-Mancheno" "autores" => array:7 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Silvia" "apellidos" => "Gaviria" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "sgaviria2@hotmail.com" ] "referencia" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] 2 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Renato D." "apellidos" => "Alarcón" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">c</span>" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">d</span>" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Miriam" "apellidos" => "Lucio" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">e</span>" "identificador" => "aff0025" ] ] ] 3 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Elvia" "apellidos" => "Velásquez" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] ] 4 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Alina" "apellidos" => "Uribe" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">f</span>" "identificador" => "aff0030" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">g</span>" "identificador" => "aff0035" ] ] ] 5 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Antonio" "apellidos" => "Lozano-Vargas" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">h</span>" "identificador" => "aff0050" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">i</span>" "identificador" => "aff0040" ] ] ] 6 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "José" "apellidos" => "Ordoñez-Mancheno" "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">e</span>" "identificador" => "aff0025" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">j</span>" "identificador" => "aff0045" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:10 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Master in Higher Education, Universidad CES, Medellín, Colombia" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Master in Higher Education, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Master in Public Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] 3 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Master in Public Health, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA" "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] 4 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Master in Health Research, Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador" "etiqueta" => "e" "identificador" => "aff0025" ] 5 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Universidad Pontificia Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia" "etiqueta" => "f" "identificador" => "aff0030" ] 6 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Clínica de la Mujer, Bogotá, Colombia" "etiqueta" => "g" "identificador" => "aff0035" ] 7 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "School of Medicine, Cayetano Heredia Peruvian University, Lima, Peru" "etiqueta" => "h" "identificador" => "aff0050" ] 8 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Clínica Anglo Americana, Lima, Peru" "etiqueta" => "i" "identificador" => "aff0040" ] 9 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Master in Health Research, Latino Clínica, Cuenca, Ecuador" "etiqueta" => "j" "identificador" => "aff0045" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Corresponding author</span>." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "La feminización de las migraciones: aspectos psicosociales y de salud mental del caso venezolano en Colombia" ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to recent estimations of the United Nations Refugee Agency, more than 7.13 million Venezuelans currently reside as migrants and refugees in other countries, mainly neighbors from Latin America and the Caribbean region.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The term “migrants” is generically utilized in this article, considering the limited precision of a status that includes purely economic factors up to eminently political considerations. Colombia is the fate-country of the majority of Venezuelan migrants, although it is also clear that many of them cross through its territory enroute to other countries, particularly Peru and Ecuador.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Venezuelan migration (VM) shows, as well, a characteristic that, in the last decades, is practically shared by all migratory processes across the world: increasing numbers of women migrating on their own initiative, very often in search of better economic opportunities (employment or education) or for political reasons, domestic or social violence, and violation of human rights in their country of origin.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3–5</span></a> This phenomenon, commonly known today as the “feminization of migrations”, has also been confirmed by the International Labor Organization, which estimates that women constitute half of the total number of migrants at the world level, even though, in some countries, this figure can be higher.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> In Colombia, 49% of Venezuelan migrants are women, most of them younger than 40 years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Beyond the social, political, and economic crisis that affect the country, the VM also responds to problems of greater incidence and difficulties in terms of general health care.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Hyperinflation, side by side with food scarcity, lack of medicines and poor medical care, has contributed to increasing needs and demands that are not adequately managed (vgr., government refusal to admit the crisis’ dimensions, and its pervasive rejection of humanitarian assistance offers).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9,10</span></a> The deterioration of the public health infrastructure has led to an increase of childhood and maternal mortality, higher prevalence of infectious diseases such as HIV and tuberculosis, and break-ups of immuno-preventable diseases.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8,11</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Survey of Life Conditions <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">(Encuesta de Condiciones de Vida, ENCOVI)</span>,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> considered as one of the most precise measurements of the so-called social determinants of health (such as financial income, nutrition, employment, access to housing and education), revealed that multidimensional poverty in Venezuela grew up to 10% between 2015 and 2018. Ninety percent of Venezuelans did not have sufficient income to buy basic foods in 2018, and the life expectancy period decreased in 3.5 years. Similarly, the survey found 808,000 children younger than five years, and 232,000 pregnant women (part of the 52.7% living in poverty) bordering the risk of, or already qualifying for malnourishment.</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Despite the massive increase of feminine migration, women confront greater obstacles to socioeconomically integrate themselves into the fate-country due to gender reasons, but also to ethno-racial characteristics, social class, migratory status and/or lack of network support, leading to situations of high vulnerability that affect seriously their quality of life.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> It is important to remark that the growing feminization of migrations is intrinsically related to processes of gender discrimination as it demands the recognition of an asymmetric reality in the daily life of many women. On the other hand, however, there is also evidence that the migratory process can improve the autonomy, the human capital and the self-esteem of women, as well as their authority and value within their families and communities.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> In this article, the feminine migration from Venezuela to Colombia is described, with emphasis on the psychosocial and mental health factors that impact such phenomenon.</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">General characteristics of the female VM in Colombia</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migrations generate situations that can increase social, economic and gender inequities.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> As mentioned above, they can accentuate, for instance, the vulnerability of women to inequities in which features such as class, ethnic origin and gender converge.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Among the factors that can produce this type of vulnerability are the absence or weakness of social and family support networks, discrimination, structural inequalities, economic dependence, unemployment, and an irregular migratory status.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Venezuelan Migration has known three periods. The most recent (“the third wave”) occurred toward the end of 2015, when the process increased significantly in comparison with previous years, with the composition of the human capital as one of its particularities: while the first two waves were characterized by “highly qualified” migrants moving to the United States or Europe (particularly Spain), the third one presented more heterogeneous profiles, and went mainly in the direction of Colombian territory.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> What follow are some of their main socio-demographic characteristics:</p><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Age</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Most Venezuelan women migrants (38. 8%) have between 15 and 30 years of age. This confirms that the youngest women are more inclined to migrate; it is also observed that although a minority in their country, women of 60 years or older are numerous among the migrants. On the contrary, the proportion of men is higher among those between zero and 14 years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Civil status</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The majority of Venezuelan women that migrate to Colombia live with a partner, 31.4% as a “free union couple”, and 18.4% are married. 37.4% percent report to be single, never married or having “free companions”. Families tend to migrate more frequently than individuals.</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Education</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The educational level of migrant women is higher than that of men: 28.9% are part of a group with technical, professional and postgraduate education, whereas only 25.5% of men reach such level. 65.6% of the migrant women vs. 68.3% of males, have a basic training level. Finally, 2.4% of women and 2.8% of men do not report any type of educational experience.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18,19</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In spite of the above, xenophobia, lack of acceptance by a significant segment of Colombians, the particular discrimination toward Venezuelan women, and the difficulties that they face when trying to validate their titles or degrees, make the opportunities to obtain employment practically the same among migrants with or without a degree. As a result, despite having a higher academic formation than their male compatriots, the Venezuelan women migrants end entering the labor market as non-qualified workers and under conditions of informality (mostly associated to care-taking jobs). In turn, they are more exposed to labor exploitation, defined by low salaries and incomes, prolonged or longer daily labor journeys, instability, and violation of human rights such as sexual traffic.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Approximately 2/3 of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia and a much higher percentage in the border communities, do not attend school. Migrants residing in the border zones are more likely to being “recruited” by criminal bands and paramilitary groups to participate in acts of violence. Most of the Venezuelan migrant parents in Colombia who wish to register their children in schools, confront serious difficulties in the process.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> Such barriers are related to the limited physical and institutional capacity of the schools, unmet social and emotional needs of the students, lack of safety spaces against violence, and poor quality of the educational services.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Socioeconomic stratification and labor situation</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to the socio-economic stratus stipulated in bills for the use of electricity, the majority of Venezuelan men and women migrants are concentrated in the strata 1, 2 and 3, the lowest ones. Among women, 33.2% belong to stratus 2, 30.5% to stratus 1, and 23.3% to stratus 3. Strata 4, 5 and 6 include a greater percentage of women (11.6%) than men (10.3%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although a large number of the Venezuelan migrant population in Colombia are women, their participation in the Colombian labor market is disproportionately lower than their male compatriots’. This situation is reflected in a global rate of female participation of 62.2%, that is, 23.2 percent points below the male rate (85.4%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> show the participation level of Venezuelan migrants, according to gender, in different areas of the Colombian labor market.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Furthermore, the labor informality level is significantly higher among Venezuelan migrants (91.9% for women, and 88.7% for men) in comparison with the native workers (59.9% for women and 60.1% for men). In addition, having children younger than seven years reduces the possibility of better salaries; the situation is even more complex and unfavorable for women, considering their historic and culturally determined obligations of home, family and children care: to be a mother and to participate in the labor market is an almost incompatible relationship, reflected also by the fact that women with a greater education, single and without children almost always obtain more advantageous labor conditions.</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Venezuelan women in Colombia may occasionally work in creativity and initiative sectors that are substantial to the new economy. This context encompasses both, professional women and those with only high school, primary or basic education. Many of these women are alert to educational opportunities that could allow them to apply to new jobs and work in different disciplines, in order to reactivate their labor life and obtain an income that may contribute to their own and their family's survival. Difficulties in processes such as the validation of the degrees obtained in Venezuela, and the lack of clarity and precision in such procedures, force them to practically restart their educational processes, thus wasting their previous knowledge and experiences in well-defined fields.</p></span></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Sexual division of work assignments and precarious labor conditions</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">That the impact of the migration experience is different for men and women, must be reiterated. The inequity situations thus generated, increase the vulnerability of those already in a disadvantageous position, i.e., women who do not have a formalized migratory status.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Among the specific risks experienced by Venezuelan women migrants, the gender-based or sexual division of work assignments, and violence, the precarious labor conditions, excessively demanding tasks, and job discrimination incidents have been mentioned, and will be now examined in some detail.</p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The sexual division of work in the host countries makes up labor markets characterized by segmentation and a horizontal, gender-based segregation that results in higher numbers of working women concentrated in occupations that require minor qualifications. Many of these women are “overqualified” for available market positions, and/or find themselves forced to look for informal jobs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Excess of care-taking jobs</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The real opportunities of employment for the female labor force coming from Venezuela, are then reduced to a segment of activities traditionally conceived “only for women”, with higher concentration in feminized sectors (care-taking jobs, domestic works, street-based, informal sales), and with hierarchical delineations that place them in positions of lower reputation and greater vulnerability, besides the obvious salary differences.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In addition, as it has also been already pointed out, the maternal and family care duties in their own homes interfere with outside working possibilities and a subsequent generation of more income. As a result, the need to compatibilize the home-based family care tasks with the demands of the daily employment makes it difficult a steady insertion in the labor market and leads, rather, to precarious and unstable occupations, marked by underemployment and informality.</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Labor place discrimination</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The culturally determined stereotypes or social perceptions “hypersexualize” the Venezuelan migrant women, causing discrimination and xenophobia on the side of the host population. These stereotypes make them more vulnerable to labor and sexual exploitation, generating obvious difficulties for their full integration.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23,25</span></a> The following text, publicized by a radio and television show in Colombia, makes it evident the existing collective xenophobia and discrimination feelings against the Venezuelan women: “To the problems of insecurity and the invasion of public space by Venezuelans, it must be added that some women of the neighbor country are disintegrating Santanderian homes as the cases of infidelity have increased”.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Greater overall insecurity</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Venezuelan women migrants in the middle of their mobilization are more exposed to insecurity in their own country, during the migration process itself, and in the fate-country. They can be victims of robberies, threats, physical assaults, torture, or other inhuman treatments, forced labor, assassination, sequestration, arbitrary detention, recruitment by armed/criminal groups and plain disappearance, in addition to suffering episodes of sexual violence such as violation, extortion and exploitation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Even though, an elevated percentage of Venezuelan women migrants have moved on together with their families and children or, in many cases, while being pregnant, they are frequently forced to travel through scarcely used routes or more difficult pathways; consequently, their normal integration to the society of arrival is a rather complex and disadvantageous process. That may be a reason for additional thousands of Venezuelan women deciding to stay in their country, in spite of its chronic crisis context.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">Lack of medical protection</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Venezuelan women migrants face greater difficulties than men in the access to health services, particularly those related to chronic or incurable diseases. Their access to Social Security is lower than that of men (in general) or Colombian women. Similarly, the lack of appropriate access to sexual and reproductive health services has resulted in problems such as the increase of adolescent pregnancies and maternal mortality. The situation is even more serious in the case of the so-called “irregular” women migrants, almost all of whom are outside the healthcare system.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Gender-based violence</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The sexual and gender violence (SGV) against Venezuelan migrant and refugee women and girls is the result of multiple social determinants.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> The different forms of violence that they face do not only occur during the migration process as such: they also take place in a variety of socio-cultural dynamic processes existent in all Latin America. In 2010, approximately half of women married in Venezuela had been abused in one way or another by their husbands, and in 2015 one of every fifty women had experienced SGV.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These forms of violence affect women and girls in different forms. Those who survive face serious difficulties in their attempts to access medical care services for reasons that not only include legal status, discrimination or disinformation about availability, but also a growing dissemination of conservative opinions regarding sexual and reproductive health, that reflect considerable threats to human rights.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a study that took place in four border cities between Venezuela and Colombia, three relevant aspects were evaluated: the prevention and response to the consequences of sexual violence, the availability of services for female migrants that had experienced some type of sexual violence, and the perceptions of women migrants regarding SGV. This study found several barriers against an integral attention to the health of the survivors: the Venezuelan migrants are not used to the notion that medical attention is needed after having survived sexual violence. SGV during migration is considered a “common” event; in three out of the four cities, there were organizations working in SGV, but not all of them could offer adequate care services in response to sexual violence.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Challenges faced during the integration process</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The conditions under which the integration process of Venezuelan immigrant women ensues depend, among other factors, on the possibility of obtaining documents that can assist them in making their permanence in the host country a regular event, a port of entry for the exercise of fundamental rights, particularly those of health, education, housing, public services and work. All of the above means that for Venezuelan women, the barriers of access to employment are higher, with subsequent difficulties in the access to social rights related to labor conditions such as health, salaries and pensions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The irregularities of the migratory process not only deprive migrants of some of their essential rights; they also expose them, as it has been already pointed out, to become victims of discrimination and of different modalities of violence, particularly when they occur associated to other factors such as low socioeconomic and academic levels, and poor labor experience. The risks to become victims of violence increase in young women and/or when their gender or sexual orientation differs from the binary man–woman condition.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Mental health</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Venezuelan migration in Colombia has generated a series of emergency situations in public health and, specifically, in mental health. A concept that transcends the health-disease dichotomy, mental health encompasses substantially the wellbeing and the quality of life of the persons involved.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a></p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To evaluate the mental health of a migrant population, it is fundamental to examine whether migration as such is or is not a direct cause of mental health deterioration or if the latter is also due to the impact of traumatic events before, during and after the journey.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> Mental health disorders are currently considered major contributors to the global burden of disease,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> so understanding the relationship between migration and mental health is fundamental for the strength of preventive efforts in public health. This impact depends on several factors related to the decisions made throughout the process and the individual, social and political context in which they occur.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> A systematic review found that the main factors are the alteration of social roles, loss or weakening of family networks, lack of support on the side of the community, and uncertainties regarding labor status and the overall outcome of the migratory processes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0415"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nevertheless, there are no solid study results that can lead to a firm, primarily causal association between migration and specific mental disorders. There are few studies and several of them lack in gender-focused analyses or inclusion of gender disaggregation in the interpretation of findings. As it has been said, the greatest clinical risk could reside in the vulnerability conditions triggered by the migratory cycle, in addition to personality characteristics and life histories, besides the migrant's resilience levels. Both, the 5.5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>million of Colombians internally displaced and the Venezuelans that live in Colombia, are at risk of mostly suffering depression, generalized anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> A study that evaluated these conditions in Colombian women internally displaced in Bogota, found that 63.4% of them had symptomatology suggestive of at least one of these conditions.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> In general, mood-related manifestations are described, i.e., feelings of hopelessness, sleep disorders, crying spells, discouragement and stress. All these conditions can be attributed to normal emotionality under abnormal, risk-filled situations.</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The most significant emerging problems are acculturation, discrimination, and xenophobia.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> A qualitative study, based on an open survey to 59 professionals in humanities, social sciences and health working with the OIM in 13 departments of Colombia,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> found that the most significant needs of the migrant population were related to mental health care, access to reasonably good housing, and services and support networks. The most common mental health problems were the consumption of psychoactive substances and different forms of violence. Anxiety and depression were, again, the most frequently reported disorders, while absence or loss of a “life project” together with sexual and gender-based violence were repeatedly cited as problem essentially linked to the migratory phenomenon.</p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0135">Sexual and reproductive health (SRH)</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Venezuelan women migrants face clear conditions of social inequity due to difficulties in the access to resources, rights, benefits, and services; a variety of socio-cultural and economic dynamics aggravate a serious humanitarian crisis<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> with deprivation of sexual and reproductive health care, a key component of the universal right to health.</p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The age of a great percentage of Venezuelan women migrants corresponds to the reproductive period, which generates important needs. According to data from Migration Colombia,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> in the year 2020, 58% of them were between 18 and 39 years of age. Their insufficient and unequal access to the fundamental services of SRH increased their vulnerability and exposed them to greater probabilities of becoming victims of sexual and gender violence, undesired pregnancies and/or, at a very early age, sexually transmitted infections, voluntary interruption of insecure pregnancies, extreme maternal morbidity, etc.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In research conducted in four cities of the Colombo-Venezuelan border (Arauca, Cúcuta, Riohacha and Valledupar)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0445"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> it was found that the perception of the participants about SRH needs were mostly related to anti-conception, access to secure abortion procedures, and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. The study probands also pointed out needs related to breast-feeding, menstrual and delivery care. On the other hand, evident access barriers to these services consisted fundamentally of attention costs, misinformation, and discrimination. Violence and xenophobia initiated by service-providing personnel were also revealed.</p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Among the objectives and actions of the OIM's health teams, the attention to pregnant women, women in general, adolescent boys and girls, has been prioritized, without excluding persons looking for attention in other aspects of compromised health.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> Among the female migrating population, one of the most vulnerable groups was the pregnant women's who required social assistance, economic support and health care in order to ensure a healthy nutrition and medical attention to achieve maternal and perinatal positive results. During the migratory process, it is presumable that the provision of these services is heavily limited.</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the face of an increase of the Venezuelan migration and the challenges experienced by the migrants, the Colombian government took initiatives aimed at providing integral care to pregnant women and children younger than one year, independently of their migratory status. Even though previous studies had demonstrated that migration is associated with adverse perinatal results at the world level,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> in Colombia an almost total vacuum of specific knowledge about the topic was found, as this was, and still is the first time that health service providers face these reality demands.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a></p><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One of the initial studies evaluated perinatal results of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> inquiring also whether the migration per se was associated with them. Nativity data were obtained from the National Survey of Colombia in 2017 (1085 childbirths among migrants, and 654,829 among Colombians). Logistic and linear regression models were utilized to identify the association between demographic, obstetric and neonatal characteristics with a premature delivery, low birth weight, and lowest Apgar scores at 1 and 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min. The Venezuelan women showed more probabilities of having children born with low weight and lower Apgar scores; in addition, differences in low coverture of health insurance and prenatal care visits were detected among the migrants in comparison with the local sample.</p><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In order to evaluate the main health problems (among them nutritional status, food safety, presence of depressive symptoms, accessibility to and satisfaction with the services) in populations of the Caribbean Colombian Coast, a study took place between August 2018 and May 2019, on 520 pregnant Venezuelan women who were “irregular” migrants.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> The main health problems were measured by means of a standardized questionnaire. 53.4% of the participants perceived their health during the pregnancy as good or very good. 51.3% presented, however, ferropenic anemia, and the majority some degree of food unsafety (87.5%). The prevalence of clinically significant depressive symptoms ascended to 32.1%. A high proportion reported some type of violence coming from spouses (90.2%). A 25.9% required health attention for urgencies independent from the prenatal attention: 62.7% qualified their emergency care as very good or good, whereas 73.1% reported having received a necessary and adequate attention for their health problems.</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0140">Discussion</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The feminization of migrations at the world level during the last decades is a phenomenon of special interest. Women face greater obstacles than men for an effective socio-economic integration in the host country, not only for gender reasons but also due to ethno-racial characteristics, social class, migratory status and/or a lack of supportive networks. This, obviously, generates situations of high vulnerability that may seriously affect their quality of life.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0465"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46,47</span></a> The gender-focused study of the Venezuelan migration to Colombia allows the visibility of important aspects which, due to the limited use of this analytical approach, may have not been previously perceived. The purpose of this article has been the consideration of some of the most relevant public and mental health issues that affect Venezuelan women migrants in Colombia. The reception of a massive migrant population without any previous similar experience represents, for Colombia an opportunity to learn lessons that, however, may still be based on models from other countries.</p><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The basic postulate of this article is, therefore, the considerable vulnerability of migrant women. In addition to the risks characteristically related to their migrant condition, their gender disparities are magnified during the process due to their multiple roles as mothers, wives, caretakers, and providers of economic resources, among others. The Venezuelan migrant women play a fundamental role in the adaptation of their families to the new surroundings, particularly in the communities of initial access. They face, besides, the dangers and risks generated by physical and sexual abuse, women traffic and xenophobia. The challenges are great as the causes that led to the migration (i.e., poor alimentation, limited healthcare, lack of medicaments and of job opportunities, among other social risks associated with basic life preservation) could be practically reproduced in the arrival country.</p><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On the other hand, despite the Colombian Government's efforts to offer health care to the most vulnerable migrant populations, among them children and pregnant women, the maternal/perinatal healthcare results are less favorable than those found in the native population. The most frequent difficulties include a late access to control programs, a lack of opportune follow-up during the pre-natal period, impossibility of access to highly complex examinations, and the subsequent uncertainty of obstetrical results. The access limitations are mainly due to the lack of information and processing norms, even though this right is officially contemplated for the case of Venezuelan women; some of them arrive at the moment of delivery without having had any pre-natal evaluation. The access to sexual and reproductive healthcare is a much felt necessity, the same as topics related to anticonception, access to a safe abortion and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases.</p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Against this background, it is evident that mental health is an area that deserves greater studies among the Venezuelan women residing in Colombia. In addition to their scarcity, studies that have been analyzed do not show a careful evaluation of gender-based discriminations. This impacts negatively on the knowledge of these women's needs, as gender-related psychosocial circumstances may contribute, in great measure, to the understanding of mental health problems and the overall psychopathology in this population. The most frequent disorders in the migrant population in general, and females in particular, are depression, anxiety and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a></p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On its side, violence is a problem that can be present throughout all the migratory journey, from the experiences lived in the country of origin up to events in the travel trajectory and the adaptation process in Colombia. The limitations in the attention to victims of SGV are not only due to barriers against a serious attention to the survivors, but also to the fact that the Venezuelan women migrants may not even consider that they require medical care after having survived an overwhelming traumatic experience. On the other hand, not all the health institutions can offer services for specific management of responses to sexual aggressions.</p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A solid understanding of mental health requires not only to know explicit realities, but also the links with other spheres that go from individual to collective scenarios. This systemic knowledge must have repercussions in the well-being and the quality of life of individuals, groups and entire communities. People's wellbeing is closely linked to the satisfaction of basic needs in areas such as health, education, housing, employment, and alimentation, without which it would not be possible to speak of mental health as the expression of wellbeing and a fruitful quality of life. On the other hand, the coverage of such needs is an effective basis of psychosocial interventions in groups such as migrant populations<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> which have women and children as, potentially, the most vulnerable victims of substantially adverse situations.</p></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0145">Conclusions</span><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The migration of Venezuelan women to Colombia is a source of significant challenges. Historically, Colombia has not been a receptor country for migrants, as it rather has frequently contributed with migrants to other countries of higher economic resources. On the other hand, the feminine migration deserves a better knowledge of its markedly different problematic. It is imperative to provide a focus and an approach based on gender perspectives about the different aspects that surround the life of human beings when they become migrants. Only then, it would be possible to offer attention and care measures that can genuinely satisfy their basic needs.</p><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The impact of this process among women and their families, identifies the different resources with which they face it. Women are used to be at the front line in the protection of their loved ones. Knowing their strategies, protective and risk factors can help the host communities and their healthcare systems and the receiving to operate well-conceived and effective programs.</p></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0150">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0245" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:14 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2173208" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Objective" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Method" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841904" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2173209" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Objetivo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Método" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841903" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "General characteristics of the female VM in Colombia" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Age" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Civil status" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Education" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Socioeconomic stratification and labor situation" ] ] ] 6 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Sexual division of work assignments and precarious labor conditions" "secciones" => array:5 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Excess of care-taking jobs" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Labor place discrimination" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Greater overall insecurity" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Lack of medical protection" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Gender-based violence" ] ] ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Challenges faced during the integration process" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0070" "titulo" => "Mental health" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0075" "titulo" => "Sexual and reproductive health (SRH)" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0080" "titulo" => "Discussion" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0085" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0090" "titulo" => "Conflicts of interest" ] 13 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2023-09-28" "fechaAceptado" => "2024-04-23" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841904" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Mental health" 1 => "Women" 2 => "Human migration" 3 => "Venezuela" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1841903" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Salud mental" 1 => "Mujeres" 2 => "Migración humana" 3 => "Venezuela" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Objective</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Review the sociodemographic and psychosocial conditions related to female migration from Venezuela to Colombia, with emphasis on psychosocial and mental health factors.</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Method</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The information was extracted from reports from international organizations, demographic surveys and articles published in different scientific media. Based on this information, different topics are analyzed considering statistical values, conditions and presentation of different variables that affect the quality of life and mental health of migrant Venezuelan women and their families.</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">The studies and sources reviewed show that they allow us to infer that the Venezuelan migrant status and gender are factors that strongly affect access to employment, health and decent housing, with women in an irregular migratory situation being the most affected. Likewise, stereotypes, xenophobic events, and gender-based violence negatively impact access to services and mental health.</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">It is necessary to continue building programs aimed at the needs of the female population, since migration accentuates gender gaps and negatively impacts mental health.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Objective" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Method" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] "es" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Objetivo</span><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Revisar las condiciones sociodemográficas y psicosociales relacionados con la migración femenina de Venezuela a Colombia, con énfasis en los factores psicosociales y de salud mental.</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Método</span><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La información fue extraída de reportes de organismos internacionales, encuestas demográficas y artículos publicados en diferentes medios científicos. A partir de esta información se analizan diferentes tópicos considerando valores estadísticos, condiciones y presentación de diferentes variables que afectan la calidad de vida y la salud mental de las mujeres venezolanas migrantes y sus familias.</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los estudios y fuentes revisadas muestran que permiten inferir que la condición migrante venezolana y de género son factores que inciden fuertemente en el acceso al empleo, salud y vivienda digna, siendo las mujeres en situación migratoria irregular las más afectadas. Igualmente, los estereotipos, los eventos de xenofobia y la violencia basada en el género impactan negativamente en el acceso a los servicios y en la salud mental.</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Se requiere continuar en la construcción de programas dirigidos a las necesidades de la población femenina, puesto que la migración acentúa las brechas de género e impacta negativamente en la salud mental.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Objetivo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Método" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] ] "multimedia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:9 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "fuente" => "Modified from DANE, Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares – GEIH – Ref.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a>" "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at1" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Type of activity \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Men \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="center" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Women \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Lodging and food services \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">7.8% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">33.4% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Artistic, entertainment, recreational and other service activities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6.1% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">23.4% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Commercial services and vehicles repairment \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">25.4% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">22.9% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Professional, scientific, technical, and administrative activities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2.0% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">6.4% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Manufacturing industry \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">9.7% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">5.7% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Public administration, defense, education and human healthcare \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.6% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">4.3% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Agriculture, fishery, cattle breeding, hunting and forestry \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">16.8% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">3.1% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Information and telecommunication \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">1.8% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.5% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Transportation and storage \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">10.8% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.2% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Provision of electricity, gas and water \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.8% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.1% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Construction \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">15.7% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.1% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Financial and insurance activities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.0% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.0% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Mines and quarry exploitation \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">2.5% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.0% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Realty activities \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.1% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">0.0% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " colspan="3" align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Total \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">100%</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">100%</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3577921.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Recent occupational activities of Venezuelan migrants, by type and gender.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0015" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:47 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0240" "etiqueta" => "1" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "referenciaCompleta" => "R4V Plataforma de Coordinación Interagencial para Refugiados y Migrantes de Venezuela [Internet]. 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Disponible online el 28 de junio de 2024
The Feminization of Migrations: Psychosocial and Mental Health Aspects of Venezuelan Women in Colombia
La feminización de las migraciones: aspectos psicosociales y de salud mental del caso venezolano en Colombia
Silvia Gaviriaa,b,
, Renato D. Alarcónc,d, Miriam Lucioe, Elvia Velásquezb, Alina Uribef,g, Antonio Lozano-Vargash,i, José Ordoñez-Manchenoe,j
Autor para correspondencia
a Master in Higher Education, Universidad CES, Medellín, Colombia
b Master in Higher Education, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
c Master in Public Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
d Master in Public Health, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
e Master in Health Research, Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador
f Universidad Pontificia Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia
g Clínica de la Mujer, Bogotá, Colombia
h School of Medicine, Cayetano Heredia Peruvian University, Lima, Peru
i Clínica Anglo Americana, Lima, Peru
j Master in Health Research, Latino Clínica, Cuenca, Ecuador
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