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Original article
Hepatic autophagy fluctuates during the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
Hao Dinga, Ge Geb,c, Yujen Tsenga, Yanyun Mad, Jun Zhanga, Jie Liua,
Corresponding author
jieliu@fudan.edu.cn

Corresponding author at:
a Department of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
b Department of Dermatology, Air Force Medical Center, Beijing, China
c China Medical University, Shenyang, China
d Human Phenome Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China; Six-sector Industrial Research Institute, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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The pathogenesis of NAFLD is complicated and multi-faceted including diet&#44; insulin resistance&#44; genetic factors&#44; lipid metabolic disorder&#44; chronic inflammation&#44; and so forth <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225">&#91;8&#93;</a>&#46; Due to the limited understanding of pathogenesis&#44; no efficient pharmacotherapy has been approved for the clinical treatment of NAFLD&#46; Therefore&#44; there is an urgent need to better understand the pathological mechanisms of NAFLD and identify potential therapeutic targets&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Autophagy is a genetically programmed and phylogenetically conserved process of autodigestion to promote cellular survival and maintain cellular homeostasis <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230">&#91;9&#93;</a>&#46; In mammalian cells&#44; autophagy begins with the formation of a double-membrane autophagosome which then moves along the cytoskeletal structures to fuse with lysosomes for degradation <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235">&#91;10&#93;</a>&#46; Among the numerous factors regulating autophagy&#44; mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 &#40;mTORC1&#41; is considered to be the central regulator that senses nutritional status and metabolic stress <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240">&#91;11&#93;</a>&#46; Previous studies have demonstrated that autophagy and mTORC1 signalling play an essential role in hepatic lipid metabolism&#44; and pharmacological modulation of autophagy can exert a therapeutic effect in obesity&#44; metabolic syndrome&#44; and NAFLD <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0245">&#91;12&#8211;14&#93;</a>&#46; However&#44; the dynamic variability of hepatic autophagy and mTORC1 signalling in response to progressive steatosis during the development of NAFLD remain largely unknown&#46; To address this issue&#44; we examined the dynamics of hepatic autophagy and mTORC1 signalling and evaluated their relationship in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> models of NAFLD&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Materials and methods</span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;1</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Animals and diets</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Male FVB&#47;N mice were maintained at room temperature with a 12&#58;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h light&#58;dark cycle and free access to drinking water and chow&#46; 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mice were sacrificed under anaesthesia by intraperitoneal injection of sodium pentobarbital &#40;80<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#41;&#46; Liver tissues were fixed with 10&#37; neutral buffered formalin for 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h and subjected to routine histological processing&#46; Haematoxylin and eosin &#40;H&#38;E&#41; staining and Oil red O staining were performed to assess the severity of hepatic steatosis&#46; Slides were visualized using a light microscope &#40;Nikon&#44; Tokyo&#44; Japan&#41;&#46; All microscopic examinations were performed by the same researcher who was blinded to treatment assignments&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;3</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Cell culture and treatment</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">HepG2 cells were cultured in Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle&#39;s medium supplemented with 10&#37; 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C6628&#44; Sigma-Aldrich&#44; MO&#44; USA&#41; or rapamycin &#40;Rap&#44; 25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ng&#47;ml&#44; A8167&#44; APExBIO&#44; TX&#44; USA&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;4</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Tandem mRFP-GFP fluorescence microscopy</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Tandem fluorescent-tagged LC3 is a convenient assay for monitoring autophagic flux based on different pH stability of mRFP and GFP fluorescent proteins&#44; however&#44; the plasmid and transfection reagent might have some toxic effects in cultured cells which needs to be noted&#46; In this study&#44; the tandem mRFP-GFP-LC3 plasmid was provided by Addgene &#40;21074&#44; MA&#44; USA&#41; and transfected using Lipo3000 reagent &#40;Invitrogen&#44; CA&#44; USA&#41; according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions&#46; Briefly&#44; HepG2 cells were cultured on glass coverslips and transiently transfected with 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;g of mRFP-GFP-LC3 plasmid&#46; Subsequently&#44; cells were exposed to 0&#46;25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mM PA for the indicated time periods&#46; Images were acquired using an FV3000 confocal microscope &#40;Olympus&#44; Tokyo&#44; Japan&#41;&#46; Quantification of GFP-LC3 and mRFP-LC3 puncta were performed using ImageJ software version 1&#46;46 &#40;NIH&#44; Bethesda&#44; MD&#44; USA&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;5</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Lipid staining and triacylglycerol quantification</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cellular lipid staining was performed as previously described <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265">&#91;16&#93;</a>&#46; Briefly&#44; HepG2 cells were fixed with 4&#37; paraformaldehyde for 10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min&#44; then washed three times with phosphate buffer saline &#40;PBS&#41;&#46; After washing&#44; cells were incubated with BODIPY 493&#47;503 &#40;D3922&#44; Thermo Fisher Scientific&#44; MA&#44; USA&#41; at room temperature for 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; followed by three washes with PBS&#46; Cells were then counterstained with 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole to visualize the nuclei&#46; Fluorescence images were obtained using a fluorescence microscope &#40;Nikon&#44; Japan&#41;&#46; The levels of triacylglycerol &#40;TG&#41; in hepatic tissues and HepG2 cells were determined using a TG assay kit &#40;Applygen Technologies&#44; Beijing&#44; China&#41; according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions&#46; TG content was normalized by total protein level&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;6</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction &#40;qRT-PCR&#41;</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Total RNA was extracted using TRIzol reagent &#40;15596018&#44; Invitrogen&#44; CA&#44; USA&#41; and reverse transcribed using a High-Capacity RNA-to-cDNA Kit &#40;4388950&#44; Applied Biosystems&#44; CA&#44; USA&#41; according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions&#46; Gene expression was quantified using SYBR Green master mix &#40;A25780&#44; Thermo Fisher Scientific&#44; MA&#44; USA&#41; and a LightCycler 480 II instrument &#40;Roche&#44; Burgess Hill&#44; UK&#41;&#46; Relative gene expression was normalized to GAPDH and expressed as 2<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#8722;&#916;&#916;Ct</span>&#46; The primer sequences used in this study are listed below&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Gapdh</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M&#46; musculus</span>&#41;&#58; forward&#58; AAC TCC CAC TCT TCC ACC TTCG&#44; reverse&#58; TCC ACC ACC CTG TTG CTG TAG&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Sqstm1</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">M&#46; musculus</span>&#41;&#58; forward&#58; AGG ATG GGG ACT TGG TTGC&#44; reverse&#58; TCA CAG ATC ACA TTG GGG TGC&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">GAPDH</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">H&#46; sapiens</span>&#41;&#58; forward&#58; GAG TCA ACG GAT TTG GTC GT&#44; reverse&#58; CAT GGG TGG AAT CAT ATT GGA&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">SQSTM1</span> &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">H&#46; sapiens</span>&#41;&#58; forward&#58; AAG CCG GGT GGG AAT GTTG&#44; reverse&#58; CCT GAA CAG TTA TCC GAC TCC AT&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;7</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Western blot analysis</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Homogenized tissues and cells were lysed in RIPA lysis buffer with protease and phosphatase inhibitors on ice for 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min and centrifuged at 12&#44;000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">g</span> for 15<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>min at 4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#176;C&#46; Protein concentrations were determined using the Pierce BCA protein assay kit &#40;23225&#44; Thermo Fisher Scientific&#44; MA&#44; USA&#41;&#46; Total protein &#40;30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#956;g&#41; was separated by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis &#40;SDS-PAGE&#41; and transferred to polyvinylidene fluoride membranes&#44; which were blocked with 5&#37; bovine serum albumin in tris-buffered saline solution with Tween-20 detergent &#40;TBS-T&#59; 25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mM Tris&#8211;HCl pH 8&#46;0&#44; 150<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mM NaCl&#44; 0&#46;1&#37; Tween-20&#41; for 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h followed by incubation with primary antibodies overnight&#46; Immunoreactive bands were visualized using enhanced chemiluminescence reagent &#40;G2014&#44; Servicebio&#44; Wuhan&#44; China&#41; and an ImageQuant LAS 4000 system&#46; GAPDH &#40;30201ES20&#44; Yeasen&#44; Shanghai&#44; China&#41; was used as a loading control to normalize expression of the target proteins&#46; Primary antibodies against P70S6K &#40;9202&#41; and p-P70S6K &#40;Thr389&#44; 9234&#41; were supplied by Cell Signaling Technology &#40;MA&#44; USA&#41;&#46; Primary antibodies against LC3 &#40;M186-3&#41; and P62 &#40;PM045&#41; were supplied by MBL International Corporation &#40;Nagoya&#44; Japan&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">2&#46;8</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Statistical analysis</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 22&#46;0 &#40;IBM Corporation&#44; NY&#44; USA&#41; and GraphPad Prism 7&#46;0 &#40;GraphPad Software&#44; CA&#44; USA&#41;&#46; Data are presented as mean<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>standard deviation and were compared using a Student&#39;s <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-test or one-way ANOVA with <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">post hoc</span> analysis&#46; Correlation was analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient&#46; Differences were considered statistically significant for <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Results</span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;1</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Characteristics of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> NAFLD models</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To simulate the development and progression of NAFLD&#44; mice were treated with HFD or MCDD&#44; and HepG2 cells were treated with 0&#46;25<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mM PA for different time periods&#46; In mice treated with HFD or MCDD&#44; hepatic steatosis was gradually aggravated in a time-dependent manner&#44; as confirmed by histological analysis and TG determination &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#sec0105">Supplementary Figs&#46; 1 and 2</a>&#41;&#46; In HepG2 cells&#44; intracellular lipid accumulation increased progressively as PA treatment was extended and was confirmed by lipid staining with the fluorescent dye BODIPY 493&#47;503 and TG determination &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#sec0105">Supplementary Fig&#46; 3A and B</a>&#41;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;2</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Hepatic autophagy is impaired in both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> models of NAFLD</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although impaired autophagy is a common defect found in NAFLD&#44; it is not clear how the pattern of autophagy changes&#46; We thus investigated the dynamics of hepatic autophagy in both HFD-induced and MCDD-induced <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> murine models and a PA-induced <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> model of NAFLD&#46; As shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#44; the autophagy marker LC3-II was found to be increased during the course of HFD and MCDD treatment&#44; peaking at 16 weeks for HFD and 2 weeks for MCDD&#46; However&#44; P62&#44; a selective substrate of autophagy&#44; was decreased in the early stages &#40;HFD&#58; 2wk&#44; MCD&#58; 1wk&#41; and then gradually increased&#46; Similarly&#44; LC3-II was significantly increased throughout the duration of PA treatment in HepG2 cells and peaked at 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#46; However&#44; P62 was reduced at 12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; then increased with a peak at 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 1</a>C&#41;&#46; As the increase in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P62</span> gene expression may be caused by impaired autophagic degradation or increased transcription of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P62</span> gene <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270">&#91;17&#93;</a>&#46; We next determined the mRNA expression level of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">P62</span> gene in the murine liver and HepG2 cells&#46; The results of qRT-PCR further supported that autophagy is impaired at later stages of NAFLD both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#sec0105">Supplementary Fig&#46; 3C</a>&#41;&#46; Altogether&#44; these results indicate that hepatic autophagy is enhanced in the early stages but blocked in the later stages of NAFLD&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;3</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Autophagic synthesis and degradation dynamics during NAFLD development</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Autophagic flux was monitored by analysing LC3 turnover using chloroquine &#40;CQ&#41;&#44; which inhibits lysosomal function and late autophagic degradation <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275">&#91;18&#93;</a>&#46; The levels of autophagosome synthesis and degradation were measured and expressed as the relative value with respect to the basal level&#46; The detailed methods were as follows&#58; synthesis<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>100&#37;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#43;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#91;LC3-II &#40;PA<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#43;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>CQ&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>LC3-II &#40;CQ&#41;&#93;&#47;&#91;LC3-II &#40;CQ&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>LC3-II &#40;Untreated at 0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#41;&#93; and degradation<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#91;LC3-II &#40;PA<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#43;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>CQ&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>LC3-II &#40;PA&#41;&#93;&#47;&#91;LC3-II &#40;CQ&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8722;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>LC3-II &#40;Untreated&#41;&#93;&#46; As shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 2</a>A&#44; autophagic flux was activated at the early stage &#40;12<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#41; and inhibited later &#40;24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; 48<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#44; and 72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h&#41; in PA-treated HepG2 cells&#46; The levels of autophagic synthesis and degradation were both increased at the early stage and then gradually decreased&#46; Moreover&#44; mRFP-GFP-LC3 puncta provided further support for these conclusions &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 2</a>B and C&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;4</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Oscillated P70S6K activation is negatively correlated with autophagic synthesis during NAFLD development</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">mTORC1 is considered to be the master regulator of autophagy due to its energy sensing function&#59; its activation is commonly measured by the phosphorylation of P70S6K&#44; a downstream target <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0280">&#91;19&#44;20&#93;</a>&#46; As shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#44; the level of phosphorylated P70S6K &#40;p-P70S6K&#41; was reduced in the early stages &#40;HFD&#58; 2wk and 4wk&#44; MCD&#58; 1wk&#41; and then gradually increased with the extension of HFD or MCDD treatment&#46; These findings were further supported by the immunoblotting results in PA-treated HepG2 cells &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 3</a>C&#41;&#46; Moreover&#44; the changing pattern of P70S6K phosphorylation showed a significant negative correlation with that of autophagic synthesis &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0030">Fig&#46; 3</a>D&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">3&#46;5</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">mTORC1 inhibition rescues autophagic flux and decreases the accumulation of intracellular TG in PA-treated HepG2 cells</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given the close relationship between mTORC1 signalling and autophagy during NAFLD development&#44; we evaluated the effect of rapamycin &#40;Rap&#41;&#44; a widely used mTORC1 inhibitor&#44; on lipid accumulation in PA-treated HepG2 cells&#46; Co-treatment of HepG2 cells with Rap and PA resulted in a reduction of P62 protein levels and an increase in the ratio of LC3-II&#47;LC3-I &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 4</a>A&#41;&#46; Furthermore&#44; the levels of intracellular TG were significantly decreased in PA-treated HepG2 cells upon Rap treatment&#44; as confirmed by lipid staining and TG quantification &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 4</a>B and C&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia></span></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">4</span><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">Discussion</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Autophagy is a protective response to stress caused by internal and external stimuli that plays an important role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and normal function <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0290">&#91;21&#44;22&#93;</a>&#46; In recent years&#44; autophagy has emerged as an important regulatory pathway in hepatic lipid metabolism and has been widely acknowledged for its involvement in the development of NAFLD <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0300">&#91;23&#44;24&#93;</a>&#46; However&#44; the variability of hepatic autophagy in response to progressive steatosis remains quite controversial&#46; For example&#44; conflicting results have been reported in patients with NAFLD by Gonzalez-Rodriguez et al&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310">&#91;25&#93;</a> and Lou et al&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315">&#91;26&#93;</a>&#46; In a study involving HFD-induced mouse model of NAFLD&#44; hepatic autophagy was reported to be enhanced at 4&#44; 8&#44; 12 and 16 weeks of treatment <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320">&#91;27&#93;</a>&#44; while other studies have demonstrated hepatic autophagy to be decreased at 4 and 8 weeks <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0325">&#91;28&#44;29&#93;</a>&#46; In addition&#44; Tanaka et al&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335">&#91;30&#93;</a> reported that hepatic autophagy was blocked at 1&#44; 2&#44; and 4 months of treatment&#46; Thus it can be seen that no consensus has been achieved&#46; Furthermore&#44; most previous studies were performed in only one kind of murine model within a relatively short time span and were limited to a few detection time-points&#46; In the current study&#44; by using two well established murine models of NAFLD&#44; we found that the protein level of LC3-II was significantly elevated throughout HFD or MCDD feeding and was accompanied by an early-phase decrease and a late-phase increase of P62 protein levels&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> experiments using HepG2 cells further supported these results&#46; Moreover&#44; the levels of autophagic synthesis and degradation were found to be increased during the early stages of NAFLD and then gradually decreased&#46; Altogether&#44; these results indicate that autophagic flux is activated initially as a response to steatosis to protect against lipotoxicity but is later blocked and inhibited as a result of homeostatic imbalance caused by continuous metabolic stress&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mammalian target of rapamycin &#40;mTOR&#41; is a serine&#47;threonine protein kinase that interacts with regulatory proteins to form mTORC1 and plays a central role at the interface of the various pathways regulating the balance between cell growth and autophagy in response to nutritional status&#44; growth factors&#44; and stress signals <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0340">&#91;31&#44;32&#93;</a>&#46; Previous studies have demonstrated aberrant activation of mTORC1 in patients with NAFLD&#44; and pharmacological inhibition of mTORC1 using rapamycin was able to alleviate hepatic steatosis in zebrafish <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0350">&#91;33&#44;34&#93;</a>&#46; However&#44; it is not clear how mTORC1 signalling responds to progressive lipid accumulation in hepatocytes&#46; Xiao et al&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360">&#91;35&#93;</a> indicated that mTORC1 activity was decreased in Sprague-Dawley rats after 8 weeks of HFD feeding&#46; However&#44; other studies have reported mTORC1 activity to be increased at 8 and 10 weeks <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330">&#91;29&#44;36&#93;</a>&#44; decreased at 20 weeks <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370">&#91;37&#93;</a>&#44; and increased at 30 weeks <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310">&#91;25&#93;</a> in HFD-fed C57BL&#47;6 mice&#46; Thus&#44; it appears that the activity of mTORC1 changes dynamically during the course of HFD feeding&#46; Indeed&#44; Zhang et al&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280">&#91;19&#93;</a> reported that the activity of mTORC1 oscillated during HFD feeding in C57BL&#47;6 mice and was increased at 3 weeks&#44; decreased at 10 weeks&#44; increased again at 16 weeks&#44; and normalized at 32 weeks&#46; Despite a large body of evidence indicating the involvement of mTORC1 in the development of NAFLD&#44; the dynamic changes of mTORC1 activity have been reported to be contradictory and there is not yet a consensus&#46; In this study&#44; we found that the activity of mTORC1&#44; as represented by the phosphorylation of P70S6K&#44; was decreased at the early stage and gradually increased thereafter in both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> models of NAFLD&#46; Moreover&#44; the changing pattern of mTORC1 activation showed a significant negative correlation with that of autophagic synthesis&#46; In addition&#44; pharmacological inhibition of mTORC1 exhibited a therapeutic effect on hepatic steatosis by recovering autophagic flux&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In conclusion&#44; our study presented a systematic examination of the dynamics of hepatic autophagy and mTORC1 signalling in response to progressive steatosis&#44; and revealed a critical role for mTORC1 signalling in regulating autophagy in both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> models of NAFLD&#46; These results may contribute to a better understanding of the role of autophagy in NAFLD&#46; Therapies aimed at restoring autophagic flux by targeting the mTORC1 signalling pathway represent a promising direction to prevent or attenuate NAFLD progression&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleDefList"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Abbreviations</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">CQ</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">chloroquine</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">H&#38;E</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">haematoxylin and eosin</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">HFD</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">high fat diet</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">LC3</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">microtubule-associated protein B-light chain 3</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">MCDD</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">methionine-choline-deficient diet</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">mTORC1</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">NAFLD</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">non-alcoholic fatty liver disease</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">NCD</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">normal chow diet</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">PA</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">palmitic acid</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">PBS</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">phosphate buffer saline</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">p-P70S6K</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">phosphorylated P70S6K</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">qRT-PCR</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">Rap</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">rapamycin</p></span><span class="elsevierStyleDefTerm">TG</span><span class="elsevierStyleDefDescription"><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">triacylglycerol</p></span></span></p></span><span id="sec0090" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Funding</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work was supported by <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs1">National Key Science and Technology Project of China</span> &#91;grant number <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs1">2018YFC2000500-03</span>&#93;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs2">National Natural Science Foundation of China</span> &#91;grant numbers <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs2">81861168038</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs2">81420108005</span>&#93;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs3">Local Innovative and Research Teams Project of Guangdong Pearl River Talents Program</span> &#91;grant number <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs3">2017BT01S131</span>&#93; and <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs4">Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China</span> &#91;grant number <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs3">2018M641919</span>&#93;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0095" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests in this study&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Introduction"
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            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0025"
              "titulo" => "Cell culture and treatment"
            ]
            3 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0030"
              "titulo" => "Tandem mRFP-GFP fluorescence microscopy"
            ]
            4 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0035"
              "titulo" => "Lipid staining and triacylglycerol quantification"
            ]
            5 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0040"
              "titulo" => "Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction &#40;qRT-PCR&#41;"
            ]
            6 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0045"
              "titulo" => "Western blot analysis"
            ]
            7 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0050"
              "titulo" => "Statistical analysis"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        4 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0055"
          "titulo" => "Results"
          "secciones" => array:5 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0060"
              "titulo" => "Characteristics of in vivo and in vitro NAFLD models"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0065"
              "titulo" => "Hepatic autophagy is impaired in both in vivo and in vitro models of NAFLD"
            ]
            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0070"
              "titulo" => "Autophagic synthesis and degradation dynamics during NAFLD development"
            ]
            3 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0075"
              "titulo" => "Oscillated P70S6K activation is negatively correlated with autophagic synthesis during NAFLD development"
            ]
            4 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0080"
              "titulo" => "mTORC1 inhibition rescues autophagic flux and decreases the accumulation of intracellular TG in PA-treated HepG2 cells"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        5 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0085"
          "titulo" => "Discussion"
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0090"
          "titulo" => "Funding"
        ]
        7 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0095"
          "titulo" => "Conflict of interest"
        ]
        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xack497217"
          "titulo" => "Acknowledgements"
        ]
        9 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "References"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2020-05-09"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2020-06-03"
    "PalabrasClave" => array:1 [
      "en" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1301802"
          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Fatty liver"
            1 => "Autophagy"
            2 => "mTORC1"
            3 => "Steatosis"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "tieneResumen" => true
    "resumen" => array:1 [
      "en" => array:3 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Introduction and objectives</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Autophagy has emerged as a critical regulatory pathway in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease &#40;NAFLD&#41;&#46; However&#44; the variability of hepatic autophagy during NAFLD development remains controversial&#46; This study aimed to elucidate the dynamics of hepatic autophagy and its underlying mechanism during NAFLD development both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Materials and methods</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Autophagy markers were evaluated in the livers of mice fed a high fat diet or a methionine-choline-deficient diet and in HepG2 cells treated with palmitic acid &#40;PA&#41; by western blotting&#46; Intrahepatic and intracellular triacylglycerol levels were assessed using biochemical quantification and lipid staining&#46; Autophagic flux was monitored using an LC3 turnover assay and tandem mRFP-GFP-LC3 fluorescence analysis&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Hepatic autophagy was enhanced in early stages but blocked at later stages of NAFLD development both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#46; Analysis of autophagic flux revealed that both autophagic synthesis and degradation were initially activated and progressively inhibited afterwards&#46; The activation of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 &#40;mTORC1&#41;&#44; a central regulator of autophagy&#44; was found to be negatively correlated with autophagic synthesis&#59; moreover&#44; pharmacological inhibition of mTORC1 by rapamycin alleviated hepatic steatosis through recovery of autophagic flux in hepatocytes with prolonged PA treatment&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Hepatic autophagy fluctuates during the development of NAFLD in which mTORC1 signalling plays a critical regulatory role&#44; suggesting a therapeutic potential of autophagy modulation by targeting the mTORC1 signalling pathway in NAFLD&#46;</p></span>"
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            "apendice" => "<p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The following are the supplementary data to this article&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia></p>"
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            "titulo" => "Supplementary data"
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      "titulo" => "References"
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          "identificador" => "bibs0015"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:37 [
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