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Special article
Reproducibility of biomedical research: Quo vadis?
La reproducibilidad de las investigaciones biomédicas: Quo vadis?
Rafael Dal-Réa,
Corresponding author
rafael.dalre@fuam.uam.es

Corresponding author.
, Antonio Bernadb, Rafael Garessec,d,e
a Investigación Clínica, Programa BUC (Biociencias UAM+CSIC), Centro de Excelencia Internacional, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
b Departamento de Inmunología y Oncología, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
c Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
d Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), Madrid, Spain
e Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria 12 de Octubre (i+12), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#1044;&#1086;&#1074;&#1077;&#1088;&#1103;¿&#1081;&#44; &#1085;&#1086; &#1087;&#1088;&#1086;&#1074;&#1077;&#1088;&#1103;¿&#1081;</span> &#40;&#8220;Trust&#44; but verify&#8221;&#41;&#46; Russian proverb</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The first cause of failure in the clinical development of new drugs is the lack of effectiveness&#46; Thus&#44; in 2011&#8211;2012&#44; 56&#37; of 105 new drugs and new indications for already marketed drugs that failed between Phase 2 &#40;exploratory effectiveness trials&#41; and delivery of the registration dossier to regulatory agencies did fail due to the lack of effectiveness&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> This occurs even though the drugs reaching human administration have shown positive results in preclinical research&#46; Should we infer&#44; therefore&#44; that the basic and preclinical research&#8211;for example&#44; conducted in cell lines and in laboratory animals&#8211;is responsible&#44; at least in part&#44; for this high failure rate in the clinical development of new drugs&#63; It is likely&#44; since an unwritten rule among venture capital companies state that at least 50&#37; of the preclinical studies published by academic researchers&#44; including most prestigious journals&#44; cannot be replicated in laboratories of the biopharmaceutical industry&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> In fact&#44; a common strategy among venture capital companies is to require validation of the results released either by other academic laboratories&#44; or by private companies other than the research group&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> This&#44; however&#44; does not always occur&#44; and in some cases&#44; a series of poorly designed and reported preclinical studies may have led to conducting clinical trials&#44; with no positive results but exposing the participants to unnecessary risks and side effects&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0005">What do we know today of reproducibility of research in biomedicine&#63;</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For centuries&#44; science has corrected itself&#46; The scientific method provides a systematic framework for the formulation&#59; as well as refinement of hypotheses by trial and error&#46; This set is based on the ability of researchers to reproduce the results of their experiments&#44; key to have confidence in the accuracy of the results&#44; and&#44; therefore&#44; consider new research&#46; A finding that cannot be replicated loses credibility&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Reproducibility can mean either the ability to replicate results&#8211;using the same original data&#8211;by independent researchers to the initial group of researchers&#59; or the generation of new data supporting the conclusions of the initial experiment&#46; Here we always take the second meaning of the term&#44; unless otherwise indicated&#46; In any case&#44; the biological variability implies that one should not expect every result of previous research to be replicated&#46; However&#44; the same key findings should be confirmed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In recent years many papers in general and scientific journals<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> have pointed out the lack of reproducibility of biomedical research&#44; which undoubtedly is related to the estimation that 85&#37; of this research has been wasted&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> This&#44; along with studies showing that the number of retracted articles has increased exponentially in recent years&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> has helped public opinion to reduce their level of trust in science&#58; only a minority &#40;36&#37;&#41; of Americans believe that the information from scientists is accurate and reliable&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Irreproducibility of research involving preclinical studies is particularly relevant since&#44; as already mentioned&#44; positive results may lead to initiate research with human beings&#46; Biopharmaceutical companies interested in the results of an academic preclinical research usually try to reproduce &#8220;the experiment&#8221; to validate the results published&#46; In this regard&#44; 2 studies alarmed the scientific community&#46; One&#44; conducted by researchers at Bayer showed some results completely consistent with those published in only 20&#8211;25&#37; of 67 projects &#40;47 on oncology&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Subsequently&#44; researchers from Amgen tried to replicate the results of 53 high-impact papers in oncology and they succeeded only in 6 &#40;11&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Some of these oncology drugs reach clinical research and are tested in patients with a type of cancer for which the drugs have not really shown preclinical effectiveness&#46; Therefore&#44; this would explain the failures observed in clinical trials&#46; In fact&#44; oncology is the therapeutic area with a highest failure rate in clinical development&#58; oncology products account for 30&#37; of all new drugs that began phase 2 end eventually end up failing&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The average rate of translation with successful results in animal model to clinical trials in oncology does not reach 8&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Research with humans&#44; much more complex and expensive than the pre-clinical studies&#44; often cannot be replicated&#46; Consider&#44; for example&#44; the comparative effectiveness clinical trials and large prospective cohort studies&#44; which require studying hundreds or thousands of participants over long periods&#46; Despite this&#44; there are some data showing that the situation is not much better than the described with preclinical research&#46; Two examples are sufficient&#46; In controlled clinical trials none of the major findings of 52 observational epidemiological studies could be verified&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Since replicating clinical trials is very costly &#8211; and exposing new patients to placebo or interventions known to have a benefit&#47;risk ratio lower than others is unethical &#8211; the quality of publications is evaluated reanalyzing the original data&#46; Thus&#44; 35&#37; of the re-analysis of published clinical trials resulted in different results compared with the trials initially published&#44; involving types and number of patients to be treated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> It should be noted that usually the regulatory agencies require 2 &#40;or more&#41; effectiveness confirmatory trials &#40;phase 3&#41; for the approval of new drugs&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> except for oncology&#46; Both trials&#44; in most cases are virtually identical &#40;on selection criteria&#44; dose and endpoints&#41;&#44; which becomes a simultaneous replication&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In psychology &#40;and psychiatry&#41; the situation is even more worrying&#46; It is known that the rate of publication of studies with &#8220;positive&#8221; results &#40;92&#37;&#41; is at the top of all life and social sciences&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> In 2011 a unique replication process of 100 psychology studies published in 2008 was initiated by 270 psychologists from around the world&#46; First&#44; the experimental design replication of each study was published with the participation of the authors of the original study&#44; if they deemed it necessary&#46; Then&#44; open expert reviews were received of each study&#44; and only then the results were publicly reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Although 97&#37; of the original 100 studies had statistically significant results &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;&#44; including the repeated ones&#44; only in 47&#37; the results could be replicated&#46; In addition&#44; the magnitude of the average effect between the replicated studies was half of the original ones&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> It should be noted&#44; however&#44; that&#44; as Nosek&#44; the driver of this replication study&#44; states&#58; with the data obtained we cannot know which study&#44; the original or the replicated&#44; obtained the actual results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> A similar study is being conducted to replicate 50 similar oncology and high-impact preclinical studies published&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Causes of lack of reproducibility of the biomedical research</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Currently&#44; it is estimated that the accumulated irreproducibility rate in preclinical research is up to 53&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> The major reasons of lack of reproducibility of research include&#58; &#40;a&#41; errors in study design&#59; &#40;b&#41; problems in biological reagents and reference materials&#44; and &#40;c&#41; the biases and errors in analysis and report of results&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For example&#44; 2671 studies published from 1991 to 2011&#44; belonging to systematic reviews of the effectiveness of drugs in 8 animal models&#44; an improvement in the percentage of randomization was observed&#44; rising from 14 to 42&#37;&#8211;and blinding&#44; which increased from 16 to 39&#37;&#8211;within the years shown&#44; respectively&#46; However&#44; the sample calculation did not vary&#44; from 2 to 1&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; In 49 meta-analysis &#40;which included 730 studies&#41; in neurosciences&#44; estimating the effect size of interest&#44; it was observed that the mean statistical power was only 21&#37;&#58; it reached 8&#37; in studies of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging&#44; while in animal studies in water maze or radial maze it was set at 18 and 31&#37;&#44; respectively&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> This is an important field for false positive results &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; Even though animal models have obvious biological differences with humans&#44; there is a high number of publications with &#8220;overoptimistic&#8221; conclusions in relation to the effectiveness of the drugs tested&#58; 80&#37; of the effective and safe treatments in animal models fail in clinical trials&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is estimated that 16&#8211;36&#37; of the cell lines used in cancer research &#8211; sometimes poorly featured &#8211; are contaminated with cells from different types of cancer&#44; being one of the factors with most influence in the irreproducibility of oncology preclinical studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> This leads researchers to inadvertently publish promising results of oncological agents against certain cancers in cell lines that&#44; in fact&#44; might correspond to other types of neoplasm&#46; This might be prevented by acquiring cell lines from a reliable provider and verifying them at the researcher&#39;s laboratory&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is known that antibodies &#8211; one of the reagents most commonly used in biological research &#8211; may also be an important irreproducibility source in trials that have been successfully designed and conducted&#46; The use of poorly characterized antibodies&#44; which have not been properly validated or have not been verified by the researchers before conducting the research of interest&#44; can lead to promising results but ultimately useless if not reproducible&#46; In an analysis of 49 commercial antibodies directed to 19 specific receptors&#44; it was found that most of them recognized more than one protein&#44; which was not reliable for distinguishing among multiple receptors&#46; In addition&#44; a study showed that 25&#37; of 246 antibodies used in epigenetic failed the specificity tests&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In preclinical research&#44; analysis procedures not included in the initial protocol are frequently used&#44; so that the data processing is modified&#46; Thus&#44; the following is not rare&#58; interim analysis is conducted&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ad hoc</span> data are excluded&#44; the primary evaluation endpoint is selected <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">post hoc</span> and pseudoreplications are conducted &#8211; where technical replication is mistaken with biological replication&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Publication bias and selective reporting bias of results is well known in all types of research&#44; including clinical trials<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a>&#8211;where various corrective measures have been suggested&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> The main gauge of a successful academic career is the number of publications in high-impact journals&#46; This means that the publication instead of being a means becomes a purpose&#46; Therefore&#44; the need to publish soon may hamper a balanced interpretation of the results&#46; The facts show that this situation frequently causes &#8216;positive&#8217; results published before they can be verified and reproduced&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22&#44;30</span></a></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; it is estimated that 49&#37; of all funding &#40;public and private&#41; for biomedical research in the USA is invested in pre-clinical research&#44; reaching 56&#44;000 million dollars&#47;year&#46; With a 50&#37; irreproducibility cumulative rate it is estimated that annually about 28&#44;000 million dollars are invested in studies that cannot be replicated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Preventing publication of irreproducible studies</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the scientific community to recover all its prestige&#44; we must ensure that scientific research is conducted with integrity&#44; with initiatives and measures throughout the whole research project&#44; from conception to reporting the results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;31</span></a> The most rational way to prevent non-reproducible studies from being published is to be conducted with the utmost rigor&#46; In addition&#44; the journals should require the materials and methods used to be described in detail&#46; This will help prove that design errors &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41; have not been committed&#44; and&#44; that the analysis of the data was performed clearly&#44; allowing control biases leading many researchers to describe what they want find and disregard what the data really shows&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32&#44;33</span></a> As shown below&#44; the pre-clinical research studies will be performed and analyzed with the same quality standards required for clinical research for many years&#46; Thus&#44; in evaluating a paper&#44; Begley<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> outlines six aspects that should be reported in the text and they are listed in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Recently&#44; to limit publication bias in animal model&#44; it has been suggested that these studies be registered before initiation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> However&#44; before that&#44; with the aim of improving standards to publishing animal studies&#44; the ARRIVE<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> guidelines was agreed&#44; which was backed by high prestige funders and journals&#44; but unfortunately it did not cause the expected effect&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The National Institutes of Health &#40;NIH&#41; of the USA&#8211;the most important pre-clinical science funding agency in the world&#8211;has admitted that the irreproducibility problem affects preclinical research mainly&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> Therefore&#44; NIH has published a guide on how this type of research should be reported&#44; supported by scientific societies&#44; Nature Publishing Group&#44; Science Journals&#44; PLOS Journals&#44; The BMJ and more than 30 journals<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0015">Table 3</a>&#41;&#46; As the NIH is aware that the background problem is poor training of researchers&#44; they are developing a specific training module&#46; They are also evaluating whether or not to add a requirement for independent validation of the previous preclinical studies to apply for support for clinical trials&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">The near future</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">All actors involved in scientific research should contribute to changing the situation in a reasonable time to allow us state that the vast majority of scientific studies in biomedicine are properly conducted and reported&#44; and are reproducible&#46; This is key in the scientific method&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As aforementioned&#44; professional and academic career of researchers is based on publishing studies&#44; as soon as possible&#44; and with positive results&#44; in high impact journals&#46; This allows the researcher to have easier access to new support for their projects and therefore new publications&#44; and eventually obtain academic and professional recognition&#46; Some people claim changing the focus of interest of the academic career of researchers and rewarding aspects of scientific activity currently ignored&#46; For example&#44; becoming a reviewer of manuscripts and projects&#44; providing protocol access to third parties and data from studies&#44; training young researchers and replicating previous studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;37&#44;39</span></a> This is not about not taking into account the publication of the results&#44; main instrument of evaluation&#46; However&#44; its current extraordinary significance should be reduced since it involves all the scientific activity&#46; In any case&#44; research institutions should promote the &#8220;culture of replication&#8221;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> This&#44; however&#44; is not easy to achieve when&#44; currently&#44; support to novel research on reproducibility comes first&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As already mentioned&#44; the scientific journals and the NIH have taken important decisions that are expected to take effect&#46; But also many other funding agencies should consider to ensure the reproducibility of the research they fund a priority&#46; Similarly&#44; research institutions and universities have major responsibility in this regard&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;37&#44;39</span></a> It has been shown that the 5 most prestigious institutions in the UK in animal model fail miserably to implement methods to limit the risk of scientific bias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> The centers should train the researchers properly and supervise the integrity of the research conducted at their facilities as well as establish certain performance standards&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> It is likely that this takes a long time to arrive in our country&#46; While this happens&#44; every research center and university should publish a code of good research practice<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40&#44;41</span></a> and be provided with a committee promoting scientific integrity and evaluate cases of suspected lack of integrity&#46; Every institution should verify that any trainee researcher would receive the training necessary to internalize the values of scientific integrity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> in addition to acquire proper training in methodology and statistics&#46; It seems clear that it is time for biomedical research to &#8220;trust&#44; but verify&#46;&#8221;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors report no conflict of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "What do we know today of reproducibility of research in biomedicine&#63;"
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          "titulo" => "Causes of lack of reproducibility of the biomedical research"
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        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0010">Please cite this article as&#58; Dal-R&#233; R&#44; Bernad A&#44; Garesse R&#46; La reproducibilidad de las investigaciones biom&#233;dicas&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Quo vadis&#63;</span> Med Clin &#40;Barc&#41;&#46; 2016&#59;146&#58;408&#8211;412&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Source&#58; Ioannidis&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> Button et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> and Ionnidis et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">PPV&#58; positive predictive value&#46;</p><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Statistical power</span>&#58; the probability of rejecting correctly the null hypothesis when it is false&#59; i&#46;e&#46; the probability of not making a type 2 or false negative error&#46;</p><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Effect size</span>&#58; a standardized measure quantifying the size of the difference between 2 groups or the strength of an association between two variables&#46;</p><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Positive predictive value</span>&#58; the probability that a positive result reflects a real&#44; true effect&#44; i&#46;e&#46; it is a true positive finding&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Sample size</span>&#58; the smaller size&#44; the more difficult is to obtain a true result&#46; A small sample size implies low statistical power&#46; A low statistical power implies a low probability of finding real&#44; true effects&#44; and facilitates finding false positives&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Effect size</span>&#58; the smaller the size of the effect&#44; the less likely that the effect is real&#46; The statistical power is also related to the effect size&#46; With a low statistical power&#44; most likely&#44; the effect size reported is too high&#46; In addition&#44; several studies with low statistical power cause &#8220;vibration effect&#8221;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">i&#46;e&#46;</span> a wide range in the magnitude of the effects found in the study variable&#46; When&#44; as currently&#44; most biomedical research reports small effect sizes&#44; it is more likely that many false positive findings are reported&#46; In fact&#44; obtaining a very large effect size should be observed with caution&#44; as it may be indicative of a significant bias&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Relationship between finding and data prior to the study&#58;</span> the probability that a finding is real&#44; true &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">i&#46;e</span>&#46;&#44; the PPV&#41;&#44; is strongly influenced by the probability before the study&#46; A randomized controlled trial Phase 3 &#40;confirming effectiveness&#41; properly conducted&#44; with an initial 50&#37; chance of real results and a statistical power of 80&#37;&#44; it has a 85&#37; PPV&#46; That means that in 85&#37; of cases the result obtained in the trial is true&#46; However&#44; a randomized controlled trial Phase 2 &#40;testing effectiveness&#41; properly conducted&#44; with an initial 20&#37; chance of real results and a 20&#37; statistical power&#44; it has a 23&#37; PPV&#46; That means that in 77&#37; of cases the result obtained in the trial is false&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Defining endpoints</span>&#58; the higher flexibility in the definition of variables&#44; the less likely that the results are true&#46; Thus&#44; the results of a clinical trial are more likely to be real when well-defined variables are used &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">e&#46;g&#46;</span>&#44; death&#41; compared to using variables with some degree of interpretation&#44; for example&#44; rating scales&#44; often used in psychiatry&#46; Variables with high degree of subjectivity favor the &#8220;vibration&#8221; effect&#44; depending on the statistical analysis&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Validity of endpoints</span>&#58; Valid variables are clinically relevant for the disease under study&#44; which is particularly important when clinical rating scales or composite variables are used&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Some of the mistakes in the design of scientific studies&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Source&#58; Begley&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Factor&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Remark&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Blinding experiments&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">In vitro</span> studies in animal model and gel reading should be blinded or&#44; at least&#44; the evaluator should be blinded&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Repeating experiments&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Before publishing the results&#44; the experiments should be repeated&#44; something that is only performed in exceptional cases&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Reporting the results&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">We should avoid selective publication of results&#44; which is hardly detectable by the reviewers&#46; The images can be manipulated digitally&#46; Therefore&#44; they should be verified&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Control groups&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">The results obtained in the control group should always be reported&#44; which is not always carried out&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Validating reagents<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">It is crucial to know that&#44; for example&#44; antibodies detect only the antigen of interest&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Proper statistical analysis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">The use of improper statistical evidence is frequent in animal model&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Points to be verified in evaluating preclinical research papers to ensure the consistency of the results reported&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Source&#58; National Institutes of Health&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0400"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">1&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Rigorous statistical analysis&#46;</span> The journal should be provided with a mechanism to verify the statistical accuracy of the manuscripts&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">2&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Transparency&#46;</span> Journals should not impose limits on the extension of the &#8220;methods&#8221; section&#46; The journals will be provided with an editorial process that ensures reporting to reviewers and readers of key information on the methodology and analysis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Guidelines for a rigorous report</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Standards&#46;</span> Using accepted standards such as ARRIVE<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Replications&#46;</span> Report how many times each experiment was replicated and if the results were verified by repetition and under what conditions&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Statistics&#46;</span> Require that all statistical accuracy be reported&#44; including the type of analysis&#44; the exact value of No&#46;&#44; the definition of center and dispersion and accuracy measures&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Randommization&#46;</span> For all animal studies&#44; report&#44; at least&#44; whether or not the samples were randomized and the method used&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Blinding&#46;</span> For all animal studies&#44; report&#44; at least&#44; whether or not the researchers were blinded to group assignment and evaluation&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Sample estimation&#46;</span> What statistical method was used in the sample estimation&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Inclusion and exclusion criteria</span>&#46; Any criterion to exclude any data or subject should be reported&#44; and every experimental result omitted from the manuscript for whatever reason should be included&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">3&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Access to data and material&#46;</span> All datasets &#40;datasets&#41; in which the conclusions of the manuscript are based should be available to the petitioner &#40;when ethically appropriate&#41; during his evaluation &#40;by the director of the journal and reviewers&#41; and after reasonable request immediately after its publication&#46; The following recommendation should be followed&#58; place the data set in repositories of public access and share software &#40;must be informed if this is available and how to obtain it&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">4&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Consideration of rebuttals&#46;</span> When releasing a paper&#44; the journal accepts the responsibility to consider for publication the refutations of that work&#44; which must meet regular quality standards&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">5&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Consider best practice guidelines for&#58;</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Data grounded in images &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">e&#46;g&#46;</span> Western blots&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>Description of biological material that identifies unmistakably the reagents&#44; in particular&#44; antibodies&#44; cell lines and animals&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#40;Summary&#41; Principles and guidelines for repoting preclinical research&#46;</p>"
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