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Review article
Screening, diagnosis, and monitoring of interstitial lung disease in autoimmune rheumatic diseases: A narrative review
Cribado, diagnóstico y monitoreo de la enfermedad pulmonar intersticial en la enfermedad autoinmune reumática: una revisión narrativa
Samuel D. Gooda, Jeffrey A. Sparksb, Elizabeth R. Volkmanna,
Corresponding author
evolkmann@mednet.ucla.edu

Corresponding author.
a Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
b Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Proposed approach to monitoring for progression of autoimmune-associated ILD within the first 5 years of ILD diagnosis&#46; ILD<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>interstitial lung disease&#59; FVC<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>forced vital capacity&#59; HRCT<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>high resolution computed tomography&#46;</p>"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pulmonary manifestations occur across the spectrum of systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases and may affect the interstitium&#44; vasculature&#44; airways&#44; and pleura&#46; Interstitial lung diseases &#40;ILD&#41; represent an important cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> While the prevalence of ILD in individual autoimmune rheumatic diseases &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; systemic sclerosis &#91;SSc&#93;&#44; systemic lupus erythematosus &#91;SLE&#93;&#44; mixed connective tissue disease &#91;MCTD&#93;&#41;&#44; primary Sj&#246;gren&#39;s disease &#91;pSjD&#93;&#44; rheumatoid arthritis &#91;RA&#93;&#44; and idiopathic inflammatory myositis &#91;IIM&#93;&#41; varies<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#44; studies have demonstrated that a substantial percentage of patients with autoimmune-associated ILD will develop progressive pulmonary fibrosis &#40;PPF&#41;&#44; a serious and often fatal condition&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0665"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The diverse pathological features of autoimmune-associated ILDs &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; fibrosis&#44; inflammation&#44; autoimmunity&#44; and vasculopathy&#41; engender immense clinical heterogeneity in both presentation and disease course&#46; For example&#44; some patients with autoimmune-associated ILD may have a stable course of disease&#44; even in the absence of therapy&#44; whereas other patients may experience PPF despite therapy&#46; Recent advances in the understanding of ILD pathogenesis and distinct ILD clinical phenotypes&#44; combined with an expansion of the ILD therapeutic pipeline&#44; has made this field one of the most actively evolving fields in rheumatology&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The present narrative review summarizes recent research on autoimmune-associated ILD with a focus on screening&#44; diagnosis&#44; and monitoring for ILD progression&#46; This review highlights the diverse clinical phenotypes of ILD within specific autoimmune rheumatic diseases and describes opportunities for further discovery&#46; Articles were selected for inclusion in this review if they were published within the last 5 years&#46; Select historical studies were included if they were deemed high quality and&#47;or contained information not represented in the more recent literature cited&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Overview of diagnosis of autoimmune-associated ILD</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The diagnostic evaluation of patients with autoimmune-associated ILD requires multi-disciplinary collaboration and a coordinated approached to decision making&#46; A multi-disciplinary meeting &#40;MDM&#41; involving pulmonologists&#44; rheumatologists&#44; radiologists&#44; and pathologists represents the gold standard for ILD diagnosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#8211;6</span></a> The MDM provides a forum to discuss individual patient cases and review relevant clinical&#44; radiological&#44; laboratory and pathological findings&#46; Because different radiological and histopathological patterns of ILD occur in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#44; expert input from radiologists and pathologists may help resolve diagnostic dilemmas&#46; Additional members of an ILD&#8211;MDM may include psychologists&#44; social workers&#44; respiratory therapists&#44; transplant specialists&#44; thoracic surgeons&#44; interventional pulmonologists&#44; and palliative care providers&#46; Studies have demonstrated improved diagnostic confidence and interobserver agreement after MDM compared with the individual components of an MDD &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; pathology&#44; radiology&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0685"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#8211;9</span></a> For the diagnosis of autoimmune-associated ILD&#44; rheumatologists play an important role in guiding diagnostic decision making&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0700"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;11</span></a> For example&#44; one study reported that approximately 10&#37; of patients received a new diagnosis of an autoimmune-associated ILD after undergoing a MDM&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0685"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> In another study&#44; rheumatology assessment reclassified 21&#37; of patients with IPF as CTD-ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Approach to monitoring autoimmune ILD progression</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Once a diagnosis of autoimmune-associated ILD is made&#44; patients require vigilant monitoring for ILD progression&#46; Different methods exist for monitoring for ILD progression including symptom and exercise tolerance evaluations&#44; as well as physiological and radiological assessments&#46; In 2023&#44; an international clinical practice guideline defined PPF as an individual with ILD &#40;other than idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis &#91;IPF&#93;&#41; who experiences at least two of the following three criteria within the past year&#44; not attributable to an alternate cause&#58; &#40;1&#41; worsening respiratory symptoms&#59; &#40;2&#41; physiological evidence of disease progression&#44; defined as an absolute decline in FVC<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8805;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#37; predicted and&#47;or absolute decline in DLCO corrected for hemoglobin<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#8805;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#37;&#59; &#40;3&#41; radiological evidence of disease progression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0715"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The guidelines do not specify the timing of symptom&#44; physiological&#44; and radiological assessments&#46; Our opinion is that within the first 5 years of a new diagnosis of an autoimmune-associated ILD&#44; patients should undergo close monitoring to understand the clinical phenotype of the ILD &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; stable&#44; gradually versus rapidly progressive&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46; While research efforts are underway to develop prediction tools for identifying those patients with an autoimmune-associated ILD who are most likely to develop PPF&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0720"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> this is an area of significant unmet need&#46; Multiple modifiable and unmodifiable factors may affect ILD progression rates&#44; including the underlying autoimmune rheumatic disease&#44; its treatment&#44; as well as co-morbid conditions&#46; Understanding the nature of the ILD through close follow up during the first 5 years after a diagnosis may improve the personalization of treatment strategies and help the patient better understand their prognosis&#46; Beyond 5 years&#44; less vigilant monitoring may be considered if the patient has demonstrated ILD stability&#47;improvement&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Systemic sclerosis</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">ILD occurs in the majority of patients with SSc&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> While the reported prevalence of ILD in SSc varies according to study design and patient population&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> one study demonstrated that among 1168 patients with SSc&#44; 65&#37; had evidence of ILD on HRCT&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0735"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> The most common histological and radiological pattern of ILD in SSc is non-specific interstitial pneumonia &#40;NSIP&#41;&#44; although usual interstitial pneumonia &#40;UIP&#41; and mixed patterns can also occur&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0740"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;19</span></a> The precise prevalence of PPF in SSc is not clear as previous studies have applied different definitions PPF&#46; However&#44; recent observational studies in largely European cohorts have demonstrated that the prevalence of ILD progression in SSc ranges from 27 to 38&#46;5&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0750"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> Among patients with SSc-ILD receiving treatment in a clinical trial in the US &#40;Scleroderma Lung Study II&#44; which compared mycophenolate versus cyclophosphamide&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> the rate of PPF was approximately 20&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0720"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> Respiratory failure due to PPF is the leading cause of death in SSc&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Because ILD occurs in most patients with SSc and is the leading cause of SSc-related death&#44; universal screening for ILD is recommended &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>&#41;&#46; HRCT of the chest is the preferred screening method&#44; as a number of studies have demonstrated that pulmonary function tests &#40;PFTs&#41; may be normal early in the ILD course&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0765"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#8211;25</span></a> In one prospective study of 102 patients with SSc&#44; 62&#46;5&#37; of patients with ILD identified on HRCT had a normal FVC&#37;-predicted&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0765"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">ILD screening is recommended for all patients with SSc&#44; regardless of the presence of respiratory symptoms&#46; Respiratory symptom assessment is challenging in SSc as symptoms&#44; such as dyspnea and cough&#44; can have multiple contributing etiologies &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; reflux disease causing cough&#41;&#46; Moreover&#44; a recent study of SSc-ILD patients assigned to the placebo arm of the nintedanib &#40;SENSCIS&#41; trial found that the rate of decline of FVC over 52 weeks was similar irrespective of the presence of cough or dyspnea at baseline&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0780"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Once diagnosed with ILD&#44; all patients should be monitored closely for disease progression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0785"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#44;28</span></a> Because distinct clinical phenotypes of ILD progression exist in SSc&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0795"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> the monitoring approach may vary based on the individual patient&#46; For example&#44; the presence of certain factors &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; male sex&#44; anti-Scl-70 antibody positivity&#41; increases the risk of SSc-PPF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0800"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> However&#44; research on risk stratification in SSc-ILD is still evolving&#46; For example&#44; while historical studies demonstrated that the greatest decline in lung function occurred early in the ILD course &#40;with the first 2 years&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0805"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> more recent studies have illustrated that ILD also progresses at later stages in the SSc disease course&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Emerging research from both observational and clinical trial studies has identified new risk factors for ILD progression in SSc&#46; These factors include increased severity of reflux disease&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32&#44;33</span></a> as well as elevated circulating levels of the pneumoproteins Krebs von den Lungen 6 &#40;KL-6&#41; and chemokine ligand 18 &#40;CCL-18&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0820"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34&#8211;36</span></a> The integration of clinical and biological data in risk stratification will undoubtedly improve our ability to predict SSc-ILD phenotypes at the time of diagnosis and tailor the ILD monitoring approach accordingly&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Systemic lupus erythematosus</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Diverse pulmonary manifestations may occur in patients with SLE&#44; including pleuritis&#44; pulmonary thromboembolism&#44; diffuse alveolar hemorrhage&#44; lupus pneumonitis&#44; shrinking lung syndrome&#44; as well as ILD&#46; Estimates of ILD prevalence in SLE vary widely&#44; with some studies demonstrating a prevalence of only 2&#8211;4&#37; to almost 30&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0835"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> A recent meta-analysis reported a prevalence range of 3&#8211;10&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> A nationwide population-based study conducted in France found that among SLE patients admitted to the hospital between 2011 and 2012&#44; 1&#46;2&#37; had a diagnosis of ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0840"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> In those patients with SLE who did not have ILD at baseline&#44; ILD subsequently occurred in 2&#46;6&#37; of patients between 2013 and 2020&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0840"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Risk factors for ILD in patients with SLE include older age<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0845"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> and longer disease duration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0850"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> In a study of over 3000 patients with SLE&#44; the mean disease duration of SLE at the time of ILD diagnosis was 7&#46;7 years&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0850"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> Overall&#44; 22&#37; of patients with a history of acute lupus pneumonitis and 21&#37; of patients with a history of alveolar hemorrhage who survived subsequently developed ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0850"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The most common radiographic pattern of ILD in SLE is NSIP&#44; accounting for 40&#8211;55&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0845"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39&#44;41&#44;42</span></a> Other radiographic patterns may include UIP&#44; organizing pneumonia &#40;OP&#41;&#44; as well as lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia &#40;LIP&#41;&#46; In terms of histopathology&#44; one small study demonstrated that an unclassifiable pattern &#40;defined as NSIP and OP&#41; was the most common pattern observed in 12 patients with SLE who underwent surgical lung biopsy or autopsy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0855"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The prevalence of PPF in patients with SLE is unclear&#46; Longitudinal cohort studies of patients with SLE-ILD are scarce&#46; One study of 20 patients with SLE-ILD revealed that radiological progression occurred slowly&#44; and physiological measures remained stable over varying follow up periods&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0845"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> Another study of 55 patients with SLE-ILD demonstrated a 5-year survival of 85&#46;3&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0855"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> After adjusting for age&#44; other risk factors for mortality in this cohort included current smoker&#44; elevated serum KL-6&#44; increased extent of ILD on HRCT&#44; thrombocytopenia&#44; anti-dsDNA antibody titer&#44; and thrombocytopenia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0855"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> In the aforementioned population-based study in France&#44; ILD presence was associated with an increased risk of death in the multivariable analysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0840"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a></p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Universal screening for ILD with HRCT of the chest in patients with SLE is currently not recommended&#46; Future studies are needed to determine whether patients with SLE who possess certain features of SLE should undergo screening&#46; Monitoring for ILD progression &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41; is paramount to ensuring that patients with SLE receive timely access to treatments for their ILD&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Mixed connective tissue disease</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mixed connective tissue disease &#40;MCTD&#41; is a condition characterized by high titer anti-U1-RNP antibodies in combination with overlapping clinical features of SSc&#44; SLE and polymyositis&#47;dermatomyositis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0865"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;44</span></a> The diagnosis of MCTD is challenging due to the heterogeneity of the disease and similarities to other autoimmune disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0875"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> In recent studies&#44; the prevalence of ILD in patients with MCTD ranges considerably from 9&#46;1&#37; to 56&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0865"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> In a subset of patients with MCTD with predominant SSc features&#44; ILD can occur in up to 61&#37; of patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0880"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The most common pattern of ILD seen in MCTD is NSIP&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0885"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> though UIP and organizing pneumonia can occur&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0890"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a> In addition to predominant SSc features&#44; male sex&#44; elevated anti-RNP antibody titer&#44; anti-Ro52&#44; and anti-Smith are associated with an increased risk of ILD&#44; whereas arthritis is associated with a lower ILD risk&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0895"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49&#44;50</span></a> Anti-RNP antibody titers correlate with increased disease activity in both adult and juvenile patients with MCTD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0895"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49&#44;51</span></a> Recent studies suggest the presence of esophageal dysmotility&#44; Raynaud phenomenon and myositis symptoms are each associated with an increased risk of ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0900"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50&#44;52</span></a></p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Historically&#44; the course of ILD in MCTD was deemed milder than other autoimmune ILDs&#44; with modest changes in PFTs and HRCT findings reported over time&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0915"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a> However&#44; in a more recent&#44; longitudinal observational cohort study in Norway&#44; even mild changes in HRCT findings were associated with decreased lung function&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0895"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> The reported five-year survival for MCTD-ILD is estimated at 84&#46;7&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> ILD is associated with an increased risk of mortality in MCTD&#44; and the radiological extent of ILD likely moderates this relationship&#46; For example&#44; patients with &#62;10&#37; total lung volume involvement on HRCT have a 10-year cumulative survival rate of only 60&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0895"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a></p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">HRCT remains the gold standard for evaluation of ILD in MCTD<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0920"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> and can be effective in monitoring disease response to therapy and progression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0915"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53&#8211;55</span></a> While no specific guidelines exist for screening and monitoring for ILD in patients with MCTD&#44; given the higher prevalence of ILD in patients with features of SSc&#44; one approach is to follow the most recent consensus guidelines on screening for SSc&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0790"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> which includes cardiopulmonary examination&#44; spirometry with DLCO&#44; HRCT of the chest and antibody testing at time of diagnosis&#46; This approach has been proposed elsewhere&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0930"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Primary Sj&#246;gren disease</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Primary Sj&#246;gren disease &#40;pSjD&#41; is an autoimmune disease typified by dysfunction of salivary and lacrimal glands resulting in sicca symptoms&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0935"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span></a> Extraglandular manifestations of pSjD are common and may affect multiple organs including the lungs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0940"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58&#44;59</span></a> Secondary Sj&#246;gren disease refers to the symptoms of Sj&#246;gren disease occurring in conjunction with another autoimmune disease&#44; such as SSc&#44; MCTD&#44; and most commonly SLE&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0950"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a> ILD occurs in patients with both pSjD and secondary Sj&#246;gren disease&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Recent estimates of the prevalence of ILD in pSjD vary considerably&#44; ranging from 2&#46;8 to 78&#46;6&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;61&#8211;64</span></a> NSIP is the most frequent pattern of ILD found in pSjD&#44; but UIP&#44; organizing pneumonia&#44; LIP and&#44; rarely&#44; desquamative interstitial pneumonitis can also occur&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0975"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65&#8211;67</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Studies have demonstrated that older age&#44; male sex&#44; and elevated CRP are associated with higher risk of developing ILD in pSjd&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0970"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64&#44;67&#8211;70</span></a> Potential biomarkers of ILD in pSjD include serum levels of IgM&#44; exotaxin&#44; KL-6&#44; TGF&#945;&#44; TNF&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1000"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">70</span></a> serum IgG levels&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> and elevated serum levels of tumor markers&#44; most notably CA153&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">71</span></a> However&#44; limited studies exist on biomarkers in pSjD-ILD&#44; and some studies report contradictory evidence&#46; Development of ILD in pSjD is associated with a 5-year survival of 84&#46;7&#37;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> and a 10-year survival of 81&#46;7&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a></p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Clinical studies assessing the timing and modality for screening for ILD in pSjD are scarce&#46; One study assessing the role of HRCT in pSjD patients without pulmonary symptoms found that 65&#37; &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>24&#47;37&#41; of asymptomatic patients had abnormal HRCT findings&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a> The most common abnormalities observed in this relatively small cohort included interlobular septal thickening&#44; micronodules and ground glass attenuation&#46; This same study found that the 7 of the 24 patients with abnormal HRCT findings had normal PFTs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a> Although there are no guidelines for screening for ILD in pSjD&#44; one expert consensus statement on autoimmune-associated ILD recommended screening with PFTs if a patient with pSjD presents with respiratory symptoms&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">73</span></a> However&#44; sicca symptoms themselves can trigger cough and the sensation of breathlessness&#44; making clinical evaluation for lung disease challenging&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74&#44;75</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Alternative screening approaches under consideration for pSjD include lung ultrasound &#40;LUS&#41;&#46; One small study &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>13&#41; demonstrated that LUS can predict the presence of HRCT-defined ILD with good accuracy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a> While LUS may be feasible in a clinic-based setting and does not expose patients to excess radiation&#44; it is highly operator dependent and requires further study&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The prevalence of ILD in secondary Sj&#246;gren syndrome is unknown&#46; In patients with SSc and secondary Sj&#246;gren syndrome&#44; the ILD is often attributed to the underlying SSc&#44; with rare exception &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; patient presenting with an LIP pattern on HRCT imaging&#41;&#46; Interestingly&#44; in other autoimmune diseases&#44; such as SSc and myositis&#44; the presence of the anti-SSA 52<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>kDa IgG &#40;also known as anti-Ro52&#41; is associated with an increased risk of ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77&#44;78</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Among the limited number of longitudinal studies examining progression of pSjD-ILD&#44; one recent retrospective study in South Korea &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>62&#41; found that 50&#37; of pSjD-ILD patients experienced disease progression over a 17-year observation period&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> Two additional longitudinal studies demonstrated progression of pSjD-ILD in 38&#46;6&#37; of patients &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>83&#41; over a 5-year period<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0980"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a> and 20&#46;4&#37; of patients &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">N</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>49&#41; over a 3-year period&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">67</span></a> It is presently unclear whether the presence of an UIP pattern of ILD is associated with progression of pSjD-ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0980"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66&#44;67</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Rheumatoid arthritis</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pulmonary manifestations of RA include ILD&#44; bronchiectasis&#44; nodules&#44; pleuritis&#44; and airway involvement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a> The relative risk of respiratory mortality is markedly increased compared to the general population&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81&#8211;86</span></a> particularly for seropositive RA that has elevated rheumatoid factor &#40;RF&#41; and&#47;or anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide &#40;anti-CCP&#41;&#46; Studies in people with elevated RF and&#47;or anti-CCP have shown more lung damage and elevated autoantibodies in sputa that suggest pulmonary mucosa as a possible origin of RA-related autoantibodies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87&#44;88</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Unlike other autoimmune rheumatic diseases&#44; RA seems to have a predilection for the UIP pattern of ILD&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> with over half of patients with RA-ILD having UIP&#46; The UIP subtype is more likely to be progressive in patients with RA&#44; compared to other inflammatory subtypes such as NSIP and OP&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">89</span></a> The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">MUC5B</span> promoter variant is a common genetic polymorphism &#40;10&#8211;15&#37; of those with European ancestry&#41; initially found to be associated with IPF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">90</span></a> This is the strongest genetic variant associated with RA-ILD&#44; particularly for the UIP subtype&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91&#44;92</span></a> Other potential genetic associations with RA-ILD include <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">RPA3-UMAD1</span> &#40;identified in a Japanese genome-wide association study&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">93</span></a> other IPF genetic risk variants &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">TOLLIP</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">IVD</span>&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91</span></a> telomere maintenance genes &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">TERT</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">PARN</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">RETL1</span>&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">94</span></a> and surfactant homeostasis &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">SFTPC</span>&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">94</span></a></p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The prevalence of RA-ILD varies widely based on study methodology&#46; For example&#44; research protocols that screen all patients for RA-ILD have found 15&#8211;40&#37; of patients have imaging features of ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">95&#44;96</span></a> Retrospective studies that use clinically indicated chest CT may also find high prevalence of ILD features&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a> A meta-analysis reported a pooled prevalence of 11&#37; &#40;95&#37;CI 7&#8211;15&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> A population-based study in Olmsted County&#44; Minnesota estimated that the cumulative incidence of RA-ILD was 15&#46;3&#37; after 20 years of RA disease duration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">97</span></a> Several studies suggest rising RA-ILD prevalence&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98&#44;99</span></a> perhaps due to increased surveillance&#47;awareness&#46; A study performed among smokers showed that subclinical ILD was present in 17&#37; of RA versus 5&#37; of non-RA comparators&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">100</span></a> Having RA and subclinical ILD was associated with 3-fold increased mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">100</span></a> Some patients may present with ILD and later be diagnosed with RA&#44; suggesting a bidirectional relationship of RA and ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">101</span></a></p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There are no accepted guidelines on who should be screened for RA-ILD&#44; but many potential risk factors exist&#44; including male sex&#44; older age &#40;&#62;60 years&#41;&#44; older age at RA onset&#44; elevated RF and&#47;or anti-CCP &#40;especially<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#215; upper limit of normal&#41;&#44; and high articular disease activity&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">102&#8211;104</span></a> Some others may include obesity&#44; poor functional status&#44; and education&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103</span></a> The literature on whether glucocorticoids and specific disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs &#40;DMARDs&#41; affect RA-ILD risk is controversial&#46; For example&#44; while methotrexate can rarely cause a drug-induced pneumonitis&#44; most studies have not found any association between methotrexate exposure and increased risk of future ILD in RA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">103&#44;105&#8211;107</span></a> Presence of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">MUC5B</span> promoter variant is strongly associated with RA-ILD&#46; This is one of the few risk factors specific to the UIP subtype&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91</span></a> Other potential biomarkers<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">108</span></a> include inflammatory and fibrotic markers such as KL-6&#44; SP-D&#44; MMP-7&#44; PARC&#44; Ip-10&#47;CXCL10&#44; and HSP90<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">109&#8211;111</span></a> and autoantibodies such as fine specificity anti-citrullinated protein antibodies&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">112</span></a> anti-malondialdehyde&#8211;acetaldehyde&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">113</span></a> anti-peptidylarginine deiminase 3X4R&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">114</span></a> and anti-carbamylated protein antibodies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">115</span></a> Research is ongoing to identify risk factors for specific RA-ILD subtypes&#44; understand different natural history patterns on longitudinal follow-up&#44; and determine the clinical utility of screening for ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">116</span></a></p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Median survival after clinical RA-ILD onset is generally only 3&#8211;8 years&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">97&#44;98&#44;117</span></a> emphasizing the need for close monitoring and treatment&#46; A recent meta-analysis reported that mortality within 5&#8211;10 years of RA-ILD diagnosis was 49&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">118</span></a> There are no specific recommendations for monitoring RA-ILD&#44; so most clinicians often use a similar approach as for IPF&#46; Once diagnosed&#44; most will require frequent pulmonary function tests &#40;generally every 3&#8211;6 months&#41; and at least annual HRCT&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Idiopathic inflammatory myositis</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Idiopathic inflammatory myositis &#40;IIM&#41; is comprised of heterogeneous disorders that generally affect the muscles&#44; skin&#44; and&#47;or lungs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">119</span></a> Dermatomyositis and anti-synthetase syndrome have a predilection for lung involvement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">120</span></a> Some patients with IIM present with fulminant lung disease&#44; including diffuse alveolar hemorrhage that has high short-term mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">121</span></a> Some patients may also have respiratory failure due to respiratory and bulbar muscle weakness&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">122</span></a> Thus&#44; pulmonary involvement in IIM is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">123</span></a> Patients with IIM are generally screened for ILD and cancer&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis&#44; the pooled prevalence of ILD within IIM was 41&#37; &#40;95&#37;CI 33&#8211;50&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The most common subtype of ILD is NSIP&#44; followed by OP&#44; diffuse alveolar damage&#44; and UIP&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> However&#44; the prevalence&#44; subtype&#44; and severity vary markedly based on IIM subtype&#46; For example&#44; &#62;90&#37; of patients with anti-MDA5 dermatomyositis have lung involvement&#44; most of which are progressive and have high mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">124</span></a> Anti-synthetase syndrome with elevated anti-Jo1 also has high likelihood of ILD &#40;&#62;90&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib1275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">125</span></a> Other clinical biomarkers that are associated with ILD in IIM include anti-PL7&#47;12&#44; anti-NXP2&#44; anti-Tiff&#44; Ro&#47;SS-A &#40;specifically Ro52&#41;&#44; anti-KS&#44; and anti-OJ&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;126</span></a> Myositis antibody panels that test for many autoantibodies are useful to risk stratify suspected IIM patients for ILD and cancer risk&#44; while also identifying patients with anti-synthetase syndrome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">126&#8211;128</span></a> The presence of clinical features such as mechanic&#39;s hands&#44; amyopathic presentation&#44; and the absence of malignancy also increase risk for ILD within IIM&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> In contrast&#44; polymyositis&#44; inclusion body myositis&#44; and immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy generally have lower risk for ILD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Most longitudinal ILD studies in IIM have included patients with anti-Jo1 anti-synthetase syndrome and anti-MDA5 dermatomyositis and focused on treatment since these patients have an aggressive course&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib1275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">125&#44;129&#44;130</span></a> There are no current specific recommendations for monitoring ILD in IIM&#44; but these patients typically need very frequent monitoring and low threshold for aggressive treatment due to the prevalence and severity of lung disease&#46; The type of monitoring needed for patients without baseline abnormalities on either pulmonary function tests or HRCT is currently unclear&#46; This likely may vary based on underlying risk factors&#46; For example&#44; IIM patients with elevated anti-MDA5 or anti-Jo1 antibodies should likely still need close monitoring with serial PFTs and&#47;or chest CT&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Future directions and conclusions</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Considering the high prevalence of ILD in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases and its overall impact on quality of life and survival&#44; there is an unmet need for improving screening&#44; monitoring&#44; and management&#46; However&#44; there are clear challenges related to the underlying heterogeneity and rarity within each disease&#44; which make clinical trials and observational studies difficult to conduct&#46; Also&#44; more natural history studies are needed to define subtypes and trajectories of ILD within distinct autoimmune diseases&#46; Biomarkers may be particularly helpful to identify people at risk for ILD progression&#44; while MDM should be incorporated more broadly&#44; including community settings given the prevalence and severity of autoimmune-associated ILD&#46; Standardized screening questionnaires should be developed to capture symptoms in patients with early ILD&#44; while also accounting for confounders such as obesity&#44; deconditioning&#44; and frailty&#44; particularly in populations where joint damage may limit mobility&#46; Finally&#44; trials are needed to investigate how currently available DMARDs affect risk and progression of autoimmune-associated ILD&#46; New ILD-targeted therapies are needed with improved efficacy and better tolerability&#46; There are now several pharmacologic trials showing efficacy for ILD within specific patient populations&#44; but important treatment gaps remain&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Authors&#8217; contributions</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">SDG&#44; JAS&#44; ERV contributed equally to this article&#46; Each author participated in conducting the literature search for this narrative review&#44; writing the original draft of this manuscript and revising the manuscript&#46; All authors approved the final manuscript prior to submission&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors report no financial or personal relationships related to the submitted work&#46; Outside of the submitted work&#44; the authors report the following relationships&#58; SDG reports no declarations of interest&#59; JAS is supported by the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs1">National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases</span> &#40;grant numbers <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs1">R01 AR080659</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs1">R01 AR077607</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs1">P30 AR070253</span>&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs1">P30 AR072577</span>&#41;&#44; the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs2">R&#46; Bruce and Joan M&#46; Mickey Research Scholar Fund</span>&#44; and the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs3">Llura Gund Award for Rheumatoid Arthritis Research and Care</span>&#46; JAS has received research support from Bristol Myers Squibb and performed consultancy for AbbVie&#44; Amgen&#44; Boehringer Ingelheim&#44; Bristol Myers Squibb&#44; Gilead&#44; Inova Diagnostics&#44; Janssen&#44; Optum&#44; and Pfizer unrelated to this work&#59; ERV is supported by the <span class="elsevierStyleGrantSponsor" id="gs4">National Heart&#44; Lung&#44; and Blood Institute</span> &#40;grant number <span class="elsevierStyleGrantNumber" refid="gs4">K23 HL150237</span>&#41; and reports the following financial relationships outside of the submitted work on autoimmune-associated ILD&#58; Consulting &#40;Boehringer Ingelheim&#44; Roche&#44; CSL Behring&#44; GSK&#41;&#59; Speaking &#40;Boehringer Ingelheim&#41;&#59; Institutional support received for performing studies in systemic sclerosis for Kadmon&#44; Forbius&#44; Boehringer Ingelheim&#44; Horizon&#44; Prometheus&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Approach to monitoring autoimmune ILD progression"
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          "titulo" => "Systemic sclerosis"
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          "titulo" => "Systemic lupus erythematosus"
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          "titulo" => "Mixed connective tissue disease"
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          "titulo" => "Primary Sj&#246;gren disease"
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            0 => "Interstitial lung disease"
            1 => "Systemic sclerosis"
            2 => "Systemic lupus erythematosus"
            3 => "Rheumatoid arthritis"
            4 => "Primary Sjogren&#39;s syndrome"
            5 => "Inflammatory myositis"
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          "palabras" => array:6 [
            0 => "Enfermedad pulmonar intersticial"
            1 => "Esclerosis sist&#233;mica"
            2 => "Lupus eritematoso sist&#233;mico"
            3 => "Artritis reumatoide"
            4 => "S&#237;ndrome de Sjogren primario"
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        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Interstitial lung disease &#40;ILD&#41; is a common and serious manifestation of autoimmune rheumatic diseases&#46; While the prevalence of ILD differs among the individual autoimmune rheumatic diseases&#44; ILD remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in systemic sclerosis&#44; systemic lupus erythematosus&#44; mixed connective tissue disease&#44; primary Sj&#246;gren&#39;s disease&#44; rheumatoid arthritis&#44; and idiopathic inflammatory myositis&#46; The present review summarizes recent literature on autoimmune-associated ILD with a focus on screening and monitoring for ILD progression&#46; Reflecting on the currently available evidence&#44; the authors propose a guideline for monitoring for progression in patients with newly diagnosed autoimmune-associated ILD&#46; This review also highlights clinical and biological predictors of progressive pulmonary fibrosis and describes opportunity for further study in the rapidly evolving area of rheumatology and pulmonology&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La enfermedad pulmonar intersticial &#40;EPI&#41; es una manifestaci&#243;n com&#250;n y seria de las enfermedades autoinmunes&#46; Aunque la prevalencia de EPI difiere de acuerdo a cada enfermedad&#44; contin&#250;a siendo una causa importante de morbilidad y mortalidad en la esclerosis sist&#233;mica&#44; la artritis reumatoide&#44; el s&#237;ndrome de Sj&#246;gren&#44; la enfermedad mixta del tejido conjuntivo y las miopat&#237;as inflamatorias&#46; Este art&#237;culo de revisi&#243;n resume la literatura reciente sobre la EPI asociada con autoinmunidad&#44; con enfoque en la b&#250;squeda y el monitoreo de la progresi&#243;n de la EPI&#46; Con base en la evidencia disponible&#44; los autores proponen una gu&#237;a para el monitoreo de la progresi&#243;n en pacientes con la EPI asociada con autoinmunidad de reciente diagn&#243;stico&#46; Esta revisi&#243;n tambi&#233;n aborda los predictores cl&#237;nicos y biol&#243;gicos de la fibrosis pulmonar progresiva y resalta la oportunidad para estudios adicionales en &#225;reas de r&#225;pida evoluci&#243;n como la reumatolog&#237;a y la neumolog&#237;a&#46;</p></span>"
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            "apendice" => "<p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The following are the supplementary material to this article&#58;<elsevierMultimedia ident="upi0005"></elsevierMultimedia></p>"
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            "titulo" => "Supplementary material"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Distinct radiographic patterns of ILD in autoimmune rheumatic diseases&#46; A<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis&#59; B<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>non-specific interstitial pneumonia&#59; C<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>organizing pneumonia&#59; D<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>usual interstitial pneumonia&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Proposed approach to monitoring for progression of autoimmune-associated ILD within the first 5 years of ILD diagnosis&#46; ILD<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>interstitial lung disease&#59; FVC<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>forced vital capacity&#59; HRCT<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>high resolution computed tomography&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Abbreviations</span>&#58; ILD<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>interstitial lung disease&#59; SSc<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>systemic sclerosis&#59; RA<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>rheumatoid arthritis&#59; SLE<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>systemic lupus erythematosus&#59; MCTD<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mixed connective tissue disease&#59; UIP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>usual interstitial pneumonia&#59; NSIP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>nonspecific interstitial pneumonia&#59; LIP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia&#59; OP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>organizing pneumonia&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Autoimmune rheumatic disease&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Prevalence of ILD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Predominant pattern of ILD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="center" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Prevalence of PPF in ILD cases&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">SSc&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">52&#8211;65&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">NSIP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">20&#8211;40&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">RA&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">6&#8211;17&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">UIP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>NSIP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">40&#8211;60&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">SLE&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2&#8211;30&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">NSIP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Unknown&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Primary Sj&#246;gren disease&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">12&#8211;20&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">NSIP<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>LIP&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">Unknown&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">MCTD&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">40&#8211;65&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                      "titulo" => "Interstitial lung disease in connective tissue diseases&#58; survival patterns in a population-based cohort"
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                      "titulo" => "An official American Thoracic Society&#47;European Respiratory Society statement&#58; update of the international multidisciplinary classification of the idiopathic interstitial pneumonias"
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                      "titulo" => "Monitoring and management of fibrosing interstitial lung diseases&#58; a narrative review for practicing clinicians"
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ISSN: 01218123
Original language: English
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