Retraction of publications in Spain: A retrospective analysis using the Retraction Watch database

Candal-Pedreira, Cristina; Ross, Joseph S.; Rey-Brandariz, Julia; Ruano-Ravina, Alberto
doi:10.1016/j.medcli.2024.07.003
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        "titulo" => "Revocaci&#243;n de publicaciones en Espa&#241;a&#58; un an&#225;lisis retrospectivo utilizando la base de datos <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Retraction Watch</span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Number of retractions per 10&#44;000 publications of Spanish authors between 2000 and 2023&#44; overall and by reason&#46;</p>"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0005">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Scientific integrity is a critical aspect of research&#44; not only in conducting scientific studies but also in disseminating research results through publication&#46; However&#44; publications must sometimes be retracted&#46; Retraction serves as a self-correcting mechanism in science&#44; alerting us that retracted publications contain invalid results and&#47;or conclusions and should not be trusted&#44; relied on&#44; or used in future studies&#46; The recently increased interest in scientific integrity and publication ethics among the scientific community may be partly attributed to the rise in the number of retractions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> The rate of retractions increased by 44&#37; between 2000 and 2011&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> whereas six articles were retracted per 10&#44;000 publications in 2019 and eight in 2020&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Various theories have been proposed to explain this growing trend&#46; Some researchers conclude that better tools are available to detect errors or scientific misconduct&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;5</span></a> Another hypothesis is that the pressure to publish and the competitiveness among researchers in the academic enterprise fuels misconduct&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There are two main reasons for retraction&#58; unintentional errors&#44; either from the authors or the journal editors&#59; and scientific misconduct&#44; such as fabrication and falsification&#44; plagiarism&#44; or duplication&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Scientific misconduct has been identified as the most common reason for retraction&#44; surpassing unintentional errors and accounting for about 60&#8211;70&#37; of all retractions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a> While all recent studies point to this&#44; the primary type of scientific misconduct appears to vary by geographic region&#44; suggesting that the characteristics and reasons for retraction may be context-dependent&#46; For example&#44; Fang et al&#46; concluded that over two-thirds of biomedical retractions due to fraud &#40;i&#46;e&#46; fabrication and&#47;or falsification&#41; or suspected fraud came from the USA and Germany&#44; while most of the retractions due to duplication came from China&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> A recent study conducted in Brazil and Portugal identified plagiarism as the most common type of scientific misconduct among biomedical articles&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Plagiarism was also found to be the main cause for retraction in India&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Fanelli et al&#46; reported that the authors&#8217; country of affiliation can influence their research activity&#46; Those countries that lack national policies and organisms managing scientific misconduct&#44; such as Spain&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> and whose researchers are economically rewarded for publishing were more likely to have retractions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Sociocultural factors&#44; such as educational factors or income level&#44; may also influence the probability of scientific misconduct&#44; as well as the most prevalent type of misconduct&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this context&#44; it is important to study retractions and their reasons at the country level&#46; Two prior studies have analyzed retractions in Spain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;15</span></a> Dal-Re<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> analyzed publications from nine biomedical disciplines retracted between the years 1970 and 2018&#44; while Marco-Cuenca et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> examined retracted articles across all biomedical disciplines during the same time frame&#46; Due to the different scopes and different classification of the reasons for retraction used in these studies&#44; they reported different primary reasons&#46; Moreover&#44; to the best of our knowledge&#44; no study has comprehensively analyzed retractions in Spain&#44; regardless of the field of knowledge&#46; Therefore&#44; our study aims to build upon these efforts and quantify and characterize all retractions by authors affiliated with Spanish institutions&#44; with a particular emphasis on those publications retracted due to scientific misconduct&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Methods</span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Study design and sample selection</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We conducted a retrospective analysis that included all papers retracted until January 26th&#44; 2023 &#40;no lower limit for the date of retraction was set&#41;&#44; and had at least one author affiliated with an institution in Spain&#46; To identify these papers and their characteristics&#44; we used four main data sources&#58; Retraction Watch database&#44; Web of Science &#40;WOS&#41;&#44; Google Scholar and Journal Citation Reports &#40;JCR&#41;&#46; We searched the Retraction Watch database using the &#8220;Country&#8221; filter and selecting &#8220;Spain&#8221; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#sec0090">Supplementary Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46; This enabled us to identify all papers with at least one affiliation with an institution in Spain&#46; We included papers retracted for any reason and from any field of knowledge&#44; but excluded expressions of concern and corrections&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The Retraction Watch database has greater coverage of retractions than PubMed and CrossRef because it uses a variety of sources to detect retracted articles and retraction notices&#46; The main sources are publishers&#8217; and editors&#8217; websites&#44; but also scientific integrity reports&#44; social networks&#44; and followers&#8217; tips&#46; PubMed and Web of Science are used to verify retractions&#46; To identify retractions&#44; Retraction Watch performs daily manual searches using keywords such as &#8220;retraction&#8221;&#44; &#8220;withdrawn&#8221;&#44; or &#8220;retracted&#8221; paper&#46; To classify retractions by reason&#44; it relies primarily on information from retraction notices and checks other sources such as institutional research reports and the U&#46;S&#46; Office of Research Integrity &#40;ORI&#41;&#46; More information on Retraction Watch can be consulted in&#58; <a href="https://retractionwatch.com/retraction-watch-database-user-guide/">https&#58;&#47;&#47;retractionwatch&#46;com&#47;retraction-watch-database-user-guide&#47;</a>&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Variables of interest</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From the Retraction Watch database&#44; the following information was gathered for each retracted paper&#58; title of the paper&#59; type of publication &#40;research article&#44; review article and metanalysis&#44; case report&#44; conference abstract and others &#40;including commentary&#47;editorial&#44; letter&#44; guideline and book chapter&#41;&#41;&#59; field of knowledge &#40;those labeled as Basic Life Sciences &#40;BLS&#41; and Health Sciences &#40;HSC&#41; were categorized as biomedical sciences papers and the rest were categorized as non-biomedical sciences papers&#44; including business and technology&#44; environmental sciences&#44; humanities&#44; physical sciences and social sciences&#41;&#59; authors and total number of authors&#59; affiliation of the corresponding author and type &#40;hospital&#44; university&#44; research center&#44; industry or a combination of the previous&#41;&#59; country of the corresponding author&#59; total number of different countries in the affiliation field&#59; journal of publication and publisher&#59; publication date&#59; retraction date&#59; and reason&#47;s for retraction&#46; The time elapsed from publication to retraction in days was calculated using the date of retraction and the publication date&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The reason for retraction of each paper was extracted from Retraction Watch database&#46; The retraction reasons used by Retraction Watch are available at&#58; <a href="https://retractionwatch.com/retraction-watch-database-user-guide/retraction-watch-database-user-guide-appendix-b-reasons/">https&#58;&#47;&#47;retractionwatch&#46;com&#47;retraction-watch-database-user-guide&#47;retraction-watch-database-user-guide-appendix-b-reasons&#47;</a>&#46; The notice of retraction was also assessed to double check them&#46; Reasons for retraction were unified in the following categories&#44; based on documents issued by the major research integrity bodies &#40;ALLEA&#44; COPE&#44; ICMJE&#41;&#58; no scientific misconduct or error&#58; unintentional errors made by the authors and&#47;or by the journal of publication&#59; and scientific misconduct&#44; classified in&#58; &#40;a&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Fabrication&#47;falsification</span>&#58; including fabrication&#47;falsification of images&#44; data or results&#44; and manipulation of images&#59; &#40;b&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Plagiarism</span>&#58; of text&#44; images&#44; data or an entire publication&#59; &#40;c&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Duplication</span>&#58; of text&#44; images&#44; data or an entire publication&#59; &#40;d&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Ethical&#47;legal issues</span>&#58; including concerns&#47;issues about referencing&#47;attributions&#59; fake peer review&#59; breach of policy by author&#59; copyright claims&#59; ethical violations by author&#59; lack of institutional review board approval&#59; conflict of interest&#59; lack of approval from third party&#59; lack or withdrawn of informed consent by participants&#59; false&#47;forge authorship&#59; false affiliation&#59; concerns&#47;issues about authorship &#40;e&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Unreliable data&#47;results</span>&#58; concerns&#47;issues about images&#44; data or results&#59; unreliable data&#59; unreliable image&#59; unreliable results&#59; &#40;g&#41; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Not specified</span>&#58; misconduct without specifying the type&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">If a paper had been retracted for more than one type of scientific misconduct&#44; to establish the main reason&#44; an ad-hoc scale was created&#46; The reasons for retraction were ranked in descending order of importance or relevance in terms of their potential impact on the scientific evidence&#46; The ranking was adapted from a previously published study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> and was as it follows&#58; fabrication&#47;falsification&#59; plagiarism&#59; duplication&#59; ethical&#47;legal issues&#59; unreliable data&#47;results&#46; We then selected the reason of greatest importance identified for each article as the main reason for retraction&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Additionally&#44; we accessed the full text of the included papers to collect information on the corresponding author&#39;s affiliation&#44; the existence of a conflict-of-interest statement and declaration of conflicts of interests&#44; the existence of a funding statement and declaration of funding&#46; If a paper received funding&#44; the source was categorized as public&#44; private or both&#46; In case the full text of a paper could not be located&#44; it was requested to the authors through ResearchGate&#44; email or both&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The total number of citations until 02&#47;22&#47;2023 received by the retracted papers were extracted manually from Google Scholar&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From Journal Citation Reports&#44; the following data related to the journal of publication was collected&#58; JCR category&#44; Journal Impact Factor &#40;JIF&#41; and JCR quartile &#40;i&#46;e&#46; the relative position of the journal in the JCR category&#44; based on the IF&#41;&#46; In journals indexed in more than one category&#44; the most favorable one according to the JIF was chosen&#46; Data were collected through the 2021 edition of Journal Citation Reports&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Statistical analysis</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">First&#44; we assessed the frequency of retracted papers over time by calculating the annual proportion of retractions with respect to the total articles published with at least one author affiliated with an institution in Spain for each year&#44; overall and by reason for retraction&#46; The total number of papers by authors affiliated with institutions in Spain per year during the study period was obtained from Web of Science&#46; Mann&#8211;Kendall test was used to evaluate trends in retractions during the study period&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A descriptive analysis was conducted to identify the characteristics and reasons for retraction of the papers included&#46; Chi-square test was used to assess the differences between retracted papers due to error and those retracted due to scientific misconduct&#46; Continuous variables were expressed as median and interquartile range &#40;IQR&#41; and categorical variables as proportions&#44; overall and by cause for retraction&#46; A detailed description of the reasons for retraction&#44; and particularly those related to scientific misconduct&#44; is also presented&#44; both overall and by field of knowledge&#46; Chi-square test was used to assess differences between biomedical and non-biomedical papers&#46; For each paper&#44; the number of reasons for retraction was collected&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To analyse time to retraction&#44; we performed a time-dependent analysis using the Kaplan&#8211;Meier method&#46; A Cox proportional hazards model was also fitted&#44; adjusted by reason for retraction and quartile of the journal of publication&#46; Registries with missing data on date of publication or date of retraction were excluded from this analysis&#46; In addition&#44; the descriptive analysis of the citations received by the papers included is also shown&#44; both overall and stratified by reason for retraction and journal quartile&#46; To evaluate differences between these variables&#44; we used the Kruskall&#8211;Wallis&#44; and the Dunn&#39;s test was applied to determine between which groups differences existed&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The statistical significance was set in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#46; All statistical analyses were performed using the Stata v&#46;17&#46;0 computer software programme&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Ethical aspects</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study used publicly available materials and did not involve human subjects and therefore committee approval was not required&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Results</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We identified 376 retracted papers through the Retraction Watch database published by authors affiliated with institutions in Spain&#46; Of those&#44; 374 met the pre-established selection criteria and were included&#46; These retracted papers were published between 1998 and 2022 in 261 different scientific journals&#46; Four papers were published in a preprint server&#46;</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 2001&#44; 1 paper out of 10&#44;000 was retracted&#44; while in 2022&#44; there were 2&#46;2 retracted papers per 10&#44;000 publications&#44; a statistically significant increase in the relative frequency of retractions &#40;Kendall&#39;s Tau<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;59&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46; According to the reason for retraction&#44; we observed a stronger upward trend for retractions due to scientific misconduct &#40;Kendall&#39;s Tau<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;58&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#44; than for retractions due to error &#40;Kendall&#39;s Tau<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;32&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;03&#41;&#44; although both are significant&#46; In the case of retractions without a specified reason&#44; the trend was not significant &#40;Kendall&#39;s Tau<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;25&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;08&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main characteristics of the papers&#44; both overall and by reason for retraction&#44; are described in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#46; Of the included retracted papers&#44; 79&#46;9&#37; were original articles&#44; 77&#46;0&#37; were biomedical articles&#44; in 82&#46;7&#37; an author affiliated with an institution in Spain was first&#44; last or corresponding author&#44; and 46&#46;2&#37; were affiliated with a university&#46; Additionally&#44; 58&#46;1&#37; of the papers did not have a conflicts of interest statement and of those declaring funding&#44; 72&#46;5&#37; were funded by public bodies&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Dentistry&#44; oral surgery and medicine</span> was the category with the most retracted articles&#44; with 8&#46;0&#37; of the total&#44; followed by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">multidisciplinary sciences</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">biochemistry and molecular biology</span>&#44; with 7&#46;6&#37; and 6&#46;6&#37;&#44; respectively&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Reasons for retraction</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main reason for retraction was error in 78 &#40;20&#46;9&#37;&#41; of the papers&#44; scientific misconduct in 258 &#40;69&#46;0&#37;&#41; and the reason for retraction was not specified in 38 &#40;10&#46;2&#37;&#41;&#46; A total of 228 &#40;63&#46;9&#37;&#41; papers had registered one reason for retraction&#44; 90 &#40;25&#46;2&#37;&#41; two different reasons and 18 &#40;5&#46;0&#37;&#41; three different reasons&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a> shows the distribution of the reasons for retraction because of misconduct for the included papers both overall and by field of knowledge&#46; Overall&#44; the most common type of scientific misconduct was duplication &#40;33&#46;3&#37;&#41;&#44; followed by plagiarism &#40;19&#46;4&#37;&#41; and unreliable data&#47;results &#40;17&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#46; Similar results are found among biomedical papers&#44; although fabrication&#47;falsification accounts for the second most common type of scientific misconduct &#40;20&#46;6&#37;&#41;&#46; However&#44; plagiarism accounts for almost half of the retracted non-biomedical papers &#40;45&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#44; followed by duplication &#40;28&#46;8&#37;&#41;&#46; Differences were observed in the reasons of retraction&#58; fabrication&#47;falsification&#44; plagiarism&#44; unreliable data&#47;results and ethical&#47;legal issues between the groups &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Time from publication to retraction</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A survival analysis was performed to analyze the period elapsed between publication and retraction &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46; Our results indicated that both the quartile of the journal of publication and the reason for retraction were significantly associated with the time to retraction&#46; Specifically&#44; articles published in the third and fourth quartile journals were retracted 1&#46;7 times faster than those published in the first and second quartile &#40;95&#37; CI 1&#46;3&#8211;2&#46;6&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46; Additionally&#44; papers retracted due to errors had a risk of retraction 1&#46;3 times as high as those retracted due to scientific misconduct &#40;95&#37; CI 1&#46;1&#8211;1&#46;7&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;018&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Citation analysis</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The median number of citations received by the included retracted papers was 10 &#40;IQR 2&#8211;36&#46;5&#41;&#46; A total of 302 &#40;81&#46;2&#37;&#41; papers received at least 1 citation during the study period&#46; Two papers &#40;0&#46;5&#37;&#41; received more than 1000 citations&#46; There was a slightly higher median number of citations for papers retracted due to scientific misconduct compared to those retracted by error &#91;11&#46;5 &#40;3&#8211;37&#46;5&#41; vs&#46; 10 &#40;1&#8211;23&#41; citations&#93;&#44; but this difference was not statistically significant &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;08&#41;&#46; <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a> illustrates the distribution of citations by quartile of the journal of publication&#46; Papers published in first quartile journals received more citations than those in third and fourth quartile journals &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;02&#41;&#44; but there was no significant difference when comparing first quartile with second quartile journal papers &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;07&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Discussion</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this study of all retracted articles authored by individuals affiliated with institutions in Spain we find that retractions have increased in the last decade&#44; with duplication being the most frequent cause of retraction&#44; although differences are observed between biomedical and non-biomedical articles&#46; Notably&#44; papers retracted due to scientific misconduct took more time to be retracted&#44; as did papers published in first and second quartile journals&#46; This study is&#44; to our knowledge&#44; the first to perform a formal analysis of all retractions with an author affiliated with an institution in Spain&#44; regardless of the cause of retraction or field of knowledge&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The trends in retractions show an increase in Spain&#44; even taking into account the exponential increase observed in the number of scientific publications&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Other studies corroborate this trend&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> both in publications in general<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> and in those of a certain field of knowledge&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;18</span></a> type of study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> or country&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;9</span></a> There are multiple reasons for the increasing of the retractions&#8217; frequency&#46; Perhaps the most discussed is the pressure to publish &#40;widely known as &#8220;publish or perish&#8221;&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> which emerges from the current system of evaluation and accreditation of researchers&#46; In Spain&#44; like in other countries&#44; this evaluation system is mainly based on scientific production&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> However&#44; this may be changing&#46; The Health Research Fund projects of the Carlos III Health Institute&#44; one of the most important calls for biomedical project funding in Spain&#44; has recently adopted the DORA declaration &#40;San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> Under this new evaluation system&#44; Spanish researchers will have to select only 10 publications&#44; which will be evaluated in a qualitative way&#46; Other researchers conclude that pressure to publish does not influence retractions and scientific misconduct&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> In fact&#44; Lacetera and Zirulia<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> established that pressure to publish can reduce scientific misconduct by increasing scrutiny&#46; However&#44; the main determinants for engaging in scientific misconduct seem to vary between countries&#46; A recent study comparing China and Flanders &#40;Belgium&#41; showed that the Flemish researchers pointed out the &#8220;publish or perish&#8221; axioma&#44; while the Chinese blame the &#8220;bad apple&#8221; theory as the main determinant of committing scientific misconduct&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> The &#8220;bad apple&#8221; theory suggests that unethical conduct is caused by a few individuals &#40;&#8220;bad apples&#8221;&#41; who are willing to violate scientific principles and ethics&#46;</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Scientific misconduct&#44; and more specifically duplication and plagiarism&#44; have been identified as the main problems related to ethics in scientific publication among researchers carrying out their research activities in Spain&#46; Our results are in line with previously conducted studies&#44; also using the Retraction Watch Database to identify retractions in Spain&#46; Dal-Re et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> found that the 35&#37; of all biomedical retractions in Spain between 1970 and 2018 were due to duplication&#44; a similar percentage to that calculated in our study&#44; although our research extended the period of study through the beginning of 2023&#46; Interestingly&#44; Marco-Cuenca et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> identified fabrication and falsification as the main cause of retraction in Spain in biomedical articles during the same period&#46; This difference with our results may be attributed to how the authors categorized the reasons of retraction&#46; Marco-Cuenca et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> divided duplication into two different reasons &#40;duplication of images and duplication of text&#41; whereas in our study we included both types of duplication as the same reason&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Studies have shown that certain regions or countries have a higher frequency of duplication and plagiarism than others&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> In Europe&#44; southern countries such as Portugal and Italy have been associated with a high prevalence of plagiarism and duplication&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> while certain central and northern European countries and the United States have a lower prevalence&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0185"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Education systems and cultural factors may play a key role&#46; In some countries&#44; the emphasis on originality and critical thinking may be less pronounced&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> leading to a lower perception of duplication and plagiarism as types of misconduct&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> especially among less experienced researchers&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> Inadequate supervision and oversight may also contribute to plagiarism by creating an environment where this practice is tolerated or even encouraged&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> In this context&#44; training in research integrity is clearly needed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0210"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> A variation of educational resources in research integrity has been observed across Europe&#46; Northern and Western European countries provide more training on research integrity and have more advanced guidelines&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We have observed considerable differences in the prevalence of other types of misconduct among fields of knowledge&#46; The proportion of retracted biomedical articles for data fabrication and falsification is almost 20 times higher than the proportion of non-biomedical articles in which these practices were identified&#46; The consequences of these practices can be enormous for science globally&#44; especially in biomedical research&#46; It should not be forgotten that the implementation of health policies&#44; as well as clinical practice&#44; is based on the results of research studies&#46; Fabrication or falsification in biomedicine can lead for instance to incorrect policies or unsafe treatments or procedures for patients&#46;</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The characteristics of retractions&#44; especially the main type of scientific misconduct&#44; are different in Spain compared to those reported in other countries&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0190"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;19</span></a> Fanelli et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> found that the country of affiliation of the author is a predictor of some types of scientific misconduct&#46; The existing evidence makes it essential to analyze retractions at the national level&#44; as the actions to be taken to prevent scientific misconduct will not be the same if the main reason for retraction is duplication compared to data fabrication&#44; for example&#46; Fanelli et al&#46; even propose to design tailored interventions to specific institutions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Knowing the context surrounding retractions of articles from authors of a particular country will enable for the development of more effective preventive and corrective measures&#46; In Spain&#44; there are different measures that can be implemented to curb duplication and plagiarism&#46; Probably the most effective in the long term would be to improve training in ethics and research integrity for students and researchers&#44; mainly in areas such as biomedicine&#44; where the rates of scientific misconduct are higher&#46; This training should start from high school to foster ethical awareness at all educational levels&#46; Abdi et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> observed that a 3-month training raised awareness about research integrity in most students&#46; In contrast&#44; other study showed that half of the students interviewed recently about scientific misconduct concluded that training had no effect on them&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> Therefore&#44; alongside increased ethics training in Spanish academic institutions&#44; using plagiarism detection software in high schools and universities could help students recognize and avoid plagiarism from an early stage&#46; This would get students accustomed to avoiding plagiarism and duplication from basic educational levels&#46; One study concluded that students knowing the use of this type of software had a deterrent effect on plagiarism&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a></p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study found that articles published in third and fourth quartile journals retract earlier than those published in first and second quartile journals&#46; Contrary to expectations&#44; this suggests that impact factor does not influence retraction times&#46; One might think that first and second quartile publications would detect errors and fraud more quickly as they usually undergo greater post-publication scrutiny&#46; However&#44; it is also possible that publications that have undergone peer review in a high-impact journal do not contain easy-to-detect errors or fraud&#46; Therefore&#44; perhaps in these cases&#44; more thorough investigation of possible fraud is needed&#44; which may substantially prolong the time to retraction&#46; Additionally&#44; there&#39;s a possibility that high-impact journals or authors are reluctant to retract for fear of damaging their reputation&#44; which could delay the decision to retract an article&#46; A previous qualitative study identified authors&#8217; reasons for not retracting an article and found that reputational fear was one of them&#46; However&#44; after the retraction&#44; authors acknowledged that they did not see their reputation damaged but that the self-retraction process needs to be facilitated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a></p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study has limitations&#46; On the one hand&#44; some of the full texts of the articles could not be consulted&#44; so variables such as corresponding author affiliation&#44; conflicts of interest&#44; or funding could not be collected in those cases&#46; Despite attempting to contact the corresponding authors of these articles&#44; we did not receive a response in some cases&#46; However&#44; the percentage of non-accessed studies was 9&#37;&#44; so we do not believe it has substantially influenced our results&#46; On the other hand&#44; the methodology used to assign a single reason for retraction to each paper may have underestimated the prevalence of certain types of misconduct&#46; As an additional analysis&#44; we compared methodology used in this study with treating each reason for retraction as a separate unit of analysis&#46; However&#44; this analysis did not change our overall results &#40;data not shown&#41;&#46; A further limitation would be including all studies in which at least one author was affiliated with an institution in Spain&#46; However&#44; in 82&#37; of the included studies&#44; a Spanish author was first&#44; last or corresponding authors&#44; being these the most important roles of authorship&#46; A further limitation is the inclusion of all types of publications&#44; including a subset of &#8220;other&#8221; publications that may introduce noise into the analysis&#46; It was not possible to analyze separately the causes of retraction by publication type&#44; as this would have required a larger sample size&#46; Nevertheless&#44; the objective was to obtain a comprehensive and representative view of the problem&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main strength of this study is the inclusion of all retractions with at least one author affiliated with an institution in Spain&#44; representing the sample universe&#46; In addition&#44; retractions were identified through the Retraction Watch database&#44; the main source of information on retractions currently available&#44; so we consider the number of lost studies to be minimal&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In conclusion&#44; the frequency of retractions in Spain shows an upward trend&#46; Moreover&#44; scientific misconduct is the main reason for retraction&#44; accounting for around 70&#37; of all retractions&#44; regardless of the field of knowledge&#46; Duplication and plagiarism are the most common types of misconduct in biomedical and non-biomedical articles&#44; respectively&#46; However&#44; other types of scientific misconduct are also a concern&#44; such as fabrication and falsification among biomedical articles&#46; It is essential to monitor and study retractions as a proxy for scientific misconduct at a country level&#46; National organizations responsible for scientific integrity must rely on the available scientific evidence to develop&#44; implement&#44; and prioritize policies&#44; mechanisms and strategies that prevent scientific misconduct&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Ethical approval</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Because this study used publicly available materials and did not involve human subjects&#44; human subjects&#8217; ethics committee approval was not required&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Funding</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work is part of the research conducting to the PhD degree of Cristina Candal-Pedreira&#44; who has received a PFIS fellowship &#40;reference number FI21&#47;00149&#41; from the Health Institute Carlos III &#40;ISCIII&#41;&#46; The funders had no role in study design&#44; data collection and analysis&#44; decision to publish&#44; or preparation of the manuscript&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Authors&#8217; contributions</span><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">CCP&#58; conceptualization&#44; methodology&#44; data curation&#44; formal analysis&#44; original draft preparation&#46; JSR&#58; conceptualization&#44; methodology&#44; review and editing&#46; JRB&#58; data curation&#44; review and editing&#46; ARR&#58; conceptualization&#44; methodology&#44; review and editing&#44; supervision&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The corresponding author attests that all listed authors meet authorship criteria and that no others meeting the criteria have been omitted&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Competing interests</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Dr&#46; Ross currently receives research support through Yale University from Johnson and Johnson to develop methods of clinical trial data sharing&#44; from the Medical Device Innovation Consortium as part of the National Evaluation System for Health Technology &#40;NEST&#41;&#44; from the Food and Drug Administration for the Yale-Mayo Clinic Center for Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation &#40;CERSI&#41; program &#40;U01FD005938&#41;&#44; from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality &#40;R01HS022882&#41;&#44; from the National Heart&#44; Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health &#40;NIH&#41; &#40;R01HS025164&#44; R01HL144644&#41;&#44; and from the Laura and John Arnold Foundation to establish the Good Pharma Scorecard at Bioethics International&#59; in addition&#44; Dr&#46; Ross is an expert witness at the request of Relator&#39;s attorneys&#44; the Greene Law Firm&#44; in a qui tam suit alleging violations of the False Claims Act and Anti-Kickback Statute against Biogen Inc&#46; Dr&#46; Ross is a cofounder of medRxiv and an Associate Research Editor at the BMJ&#46; No other authors declared any potential competing interests regarding this study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Data availability</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The data that support the findings of this study are available from Retraction Watch&#46; Restrictions apply to the availability of these data&#44; which were used under contract license for this study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Patient and public involvement</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It was not appropriate or possible to involve patients or the public in the design&#44; or conduct&#44; or reporting&#44; or dissemination plans of our research&#46;</p></span></span>"
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                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="10" align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Declared funding</span><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0015">&#42;&#42;&#42;</a>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;348&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Received funding</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">198&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">87&#46;2&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">45&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">86&#46;5&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">135&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">88&#46;8&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">18&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">78&#46;3&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>From public bodies&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">142&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">72&#46;5&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">34&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">75&#46;6&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">93&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">69&#46;9&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">15&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">83&#46;3&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>From private bodies&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">8&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">4&#46;1&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2&#46;2&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">4&#46;5&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">5&#46;6&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>From both&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">46&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">23&#46;5&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">10&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">22&#46;2&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">34&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">35&#46;6&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">11&#46;1&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Not received funding</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">29&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">12&#46;8&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">13&#46;5&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">17&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">11&#46;2&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">5&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">21&#46;7&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="10" align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">JCR quartile</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="char" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">0&#46;439&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Not indexed in JCR</span>&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
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