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Small, hyperdense spleen (334 HU), with punctate images of diffuse distribution. B) Coronal reconstruction where the small spleen is seen. C) Ultrasound focused on the left hypochondrium. Subcostal longitudinal section of the spleen. Hyperechoic linear image with posterior acoustic shadowing (arrow) corresponding to the spleen.</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "A. Aranaz Murillo, E. Pascual Pérez, R. Larrosa López, L. Sarría Octavio de Toledo" "autores" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "A." "apellidos" => "Aranaz Murillo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "E." "apellidos" => "Pascual Pérez" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "R." "apellidos" => "Larrosa López" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "L." 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Case 1: Lung cancer patient. Contrast-enhanced 3D T1-weighted cross-sectional images: pre-treatment (A), and at three months after radiotherapy treatment (B), which show a reduction in the size of the tumour tissue (arrowhead) at the same time that there is a diffuse focal enhancement similar to a ‘cloud’ (arrows in B). Case 2: Breast cancer patient. Contrast-enhanced 3D T1-weighted cross-sectional images at six months after treatment (C), which show the ‘inflammatory cloud’ sign (arrows). Image D shows a partial response in the cluster of LM metastases (arrowheads).</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "A. Ortiz de Mendivil, P. Martín-Medina, L. García-Cañamaque, B. Jiménez-Munarriz, R. Ciérvide, J. Diamantopoulos" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "A." "apellidos" => "Ortiz de Mendivil" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "P." "apellidos" => "Martín-Medina" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "L." 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Alonso Sánchez, D.A. Parra, C. Parra-Fariñas" "autores" => array:3 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "J." "apellidos" => "Alonso Sánchez" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "Jaimealsn2@gmail.com" ] "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "D.A." "apellidos" => "Parra" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "C." "apellidos" => "Parra-Fariñas" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Division of Imaged Guided Therapy, Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids), University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Divisions of Neuroradiology and Imaged Guided Therapy, Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids), University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Radiologia intervencionista en pediatría: no es un juego de ninos" ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction. The origins of vascular and interventional radiology in paediatrics</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Vascular and interventional radiology (VIR) is a relatively young subspecialty. It can be traced back to 1953, the year Sven Seldinger described the Seldinger technique,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> considered the basis for the majority of vascular interventional radiology procedures. This new needle-guide-catheter technique allowed radiologists, more specifically angiologists, to delve into the world of angiography. Until then, vascular surgeons had the monopoly on therapies for vascular pathologies. This new technique opened the door to develop new endovascular techniques and procedures. The first antegrade aortography was described in 1960, in which a catheter was inserted into the right atrium via the basilic vein.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> In the same decade, the first injectors and x-ray machines able to produce angiographic series came onto the market.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However, Charles Dotter was the pioneer when it came to demonstrating that VIR could be a therapeutic as well as a diagnostic tool. Dotter first performed an angioplasty by accident in 1963. He was conducting a diagnostic aortogram on a patient with renal stenosis when he introduced the catheter in a retrograde fashion through an occluded right iliac artery. The following year, Dotter performed the first balloon angioplasty on an 82-year-old patient with chronic stenosis in the superficial femoral artery who had refused amputation. The patient lived for a further three years with no further symptoms, at which point she died of other causes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4,5</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">These advances by Seldinger and Dotter paved the way for interventional radiology, with a host of innovations to this day. These breakthroughs include the accidental discovery in 1964 that it was possible to link the hepatic vein and the portal vein during an attempt to drain the bile duct into the hepatic veins<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a>; the first embolisations were performed in 1972 to treat gastrointestinal bleeding<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a>; and in 1973 to treat pelvic trauma<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a>; the first coils were used to treat aneurysms and intracranial vascular malformations in 1974<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a>; and also in 1974, the first angioplasty balloons created by Andreas Gruentzig were used.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Children were not overlooked. In 1981, the first percutaneous closure of a patent ductus arteriosus was described.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Similarly, the first splenoportographies in paediatric patients for the diagnosis of portal obstructions were performed by Charles Dotter himself in 1971.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> One of the pioneers of paediatric VIR is Philip Stanley, author of the first book on paediatric angiography,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> who described the diagnosis and treatment of renal hypertension,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14,15</span></a> the first arterial embolisations<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> and the first image-guided percutaneous drains.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> The first text dedicated exclusively to paediatric radiology was published in 2014 by Michael Temple and Francis E. Marshalleck, in which they describe paediatric interventional procedures in great detail.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> It is our aim with this article to discuss the challenges and opportunities facing paediatric VIR today and to raise awareness of the usefulness of these minimally invasive procedures in the paediatric population.</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Challenges and opportunities</span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Training</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To acquire the specific skills and competencies necessary to practise interventional radiology in paediatrics, specialisation in general radiology as well as further training in paediatric radiology and VIR is necessary.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Specific training in this field has arrived to Spain relatively recently, with fellowship programmes in VIR for adult patients endorsed by the Spanish Society of Vascular and Interventional Radiology (SERVEI, Spanish acronym).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> At present, there is no specific fellowship programme for paediatric VIR in Spain. However, there are more than a dozen fellowship programmes in the United States and Canada, in large tertiary paediatric centres (Boston Children's Hospital, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, The Hospital For Sick Children, among others). In contrast, there is only one programme in Europe (Great Ormond Street Hospital, London). There are also significant differences in the number, type and complexity of cases performed depending on the centre. This is an obstacle to the standardisation and homogenisation of paediatric VIR training.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Volume and complexity of cases</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The characteristics of paediatric VIR procedures vary widely between hospitals fundamentally due to variations in the availability of equipment and personnel. This results in large differences when acquiring proper training.</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In centres which handle a low number of procedures, and ones of a lower complexity, it may be difficult to find paediatrics-trained staff with access to the best equipment. To overcome these difficulties, close collaboration and integration with adult VIR may be a viable alternative.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On the other hand, there is also a growing demand for professionals who are able to perform procedures in the paediatric population due to the diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities offered by VIR in paediatrics. This is already a reality in large tertiary centres. It is true, however, that this subspecialty is still relatively unknown.</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Specific material</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Materials initially designed for adults do not meet all paediatric needs, and their utility, performance and safety have yet to be validated.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> In general, innovation in paediatrics seems to move more slowly. There also seems to be less availability of paediatric-specific materials. Although some devices have been specifically designed for paediatric patients, such as guidewires, vascular catheters, dialysis catheters, port-a-caths or enteral feeding devices, this is an unattractive market on the whole due to the lower demand and the high costs involved in redesigning devices that have already been extensively validated for adults.</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Needs of paediatric patients and their families</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Paediatric patients and the people around them have different needs to those of adult patients. Depending on their age, children do not always understand the importance of a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure. Also, the impact on each of the two population groups differs greatly.</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">With regard to anaesthesia techniques, there is, in general, a greater need for sedation and anaesthesia to perform a procedure safely in the paediatric population. This often leads to a higher risk of complications. Less complex procedures can in some cases be performed without the aid of sedation, especially in neonates or infants, who can be calmed during minimally invasive procedures. Examples would be peripherally inserted central catheters or ultrasound-guided lumbar punctures in patients under one year of age. However, these patients require differentiated care, such as body temperature management during the procedure, minimising blood loss, as well as minimising the volumes of fluid or contrast administered. For older paediatric patients, or for longer and more complex procedures where collaboration is not an option, most require anaesthesia or sedation under the supervision of an anaesthetist. Exposure to prolonged sedation or general anaesthesia should be minimised because of potential adverse neurodevelopmental effects,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> and strategies to combine all these procedures under one single anaesthetic are useful.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Besides the welfare of the patient, that of the patient’s family must also be ensured.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Illness is a source of concern and anxiety for the parents, often a greater one for them than for the actual patient. The need for the procedure and its short, medium or long-term outcomes must be explained, as must the procedure’s risks and complications and post-procedural care. Continuity of care before, during and after the procedure by the same team of professionals is key to addressing the patient’s problems and reassuring their relatives.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Radiation protection and safety in contrast administration</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">While the benefits of these radiological interventions are well recognised, there are also risks associated with exposure to ionising radiation. This is especially important in the paediatric population as these patients are more sensitive to the effects of radiation. The primary goal of radiation management in VIR is to minimise unnecessary radiation use in accordance with the ALARA (As Low as Reasonably Achievable) principles.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27,28</span></a></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For all fluoroscopically guided interventional procedures, the radiation dose during the procedure must be monitored and recorded in the patient’s medical record. Patients who have received a clinically significant radiation dose should receive follow-up after the procedure to check for possible side effects. In addition, low-dose protocols must be created that allow procedures to be performed safely.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a></p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding radiological contrasts, low-osmolality contrast media are preferred with maximum volumes of 4–5 ml/kg in neonates and 6–8 ml/kg for other paediatric patients. Diluting contrast or avoiding the use of contrast injectors may be useful strategies to reduce the amount of contrast used and avoid unwanted adverse effects due to allergic reactions (generally less frequent than in adults) or contrast nephrotoxicity (rare in patients with adequate glomerular filtration rate or almost always associated with other comorbidities).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0150"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30,31</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Present and future</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The number of paediatric interventional radiologists who define themselves as such has grown in recent decades, from 110 professionals and 38 hospitals mainly in the United States and Canada in 2007<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> to 177 professionals and 88 hospitals in 2017.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> There are only five European paediatric interventional radiology centres.</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The first Society for Paediatric Interventional Radiology (SPIR) was created in 2009, with the aim to “support and promote the health of the paediatric population through minimally invasive image-guided procedures”. The society now has more than 300 members in 24 countries.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a></p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Paediatric VIR is a promising subspecialty with incredible potential for innovation and development. The challenges it faces are similar to those faced by adult VIR in its early days, some of which still exist today. These include the need for specific and structured training, greater recognition by healthcare institutions of the need for interventional services, and collaboration in the development of appropriate paediatric teams. Overcoming these challenges is essential to ensure that all paediatric patients have access to the minimally invasive VIR procedures which are available to adults.</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Funding</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This research has not received funding support from public sector agencies, the business sector or any non-profit organisations.</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Author contributions</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Research coordinators: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Development of study concept: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Study design: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Data collection: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Data analysis and interpretation: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Statistical analysis: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Literature search: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Writing of article: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Critical review of the manuscript with intellectually relevant contributions: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Approval of the final version: JAS, DAP, CP-F.</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Author contribution</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Alonso Sánchez, Jaime: Study design. Data collection. Analysis and drafting. Approval of the final manuscript.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Parra, Dimitri A: Study design. Critical content review. Approval of the final manuscript.</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Parra-Fariñas, Carmen: Study design. Critical content review. Approval of the final manuscript.</p></li></ul></p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Conflict of interests</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:12 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2128837" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1808026" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2128836" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1808027" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction. The origins of vascular and interventional radiology in paediatrics" ] 5 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Challenges and opportunities" "secciones" => array:5 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Training" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Volume and complexity of cases" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Specific material" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Needs of paediatric patients and their families" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Radiation protection and safety in contrast administration" ] ] ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Present and future" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Funding" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Author contributions" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Author contribution" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Conflict of interests" ] 11 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2023-06-01" "fechaAceptado" => "2023-06-26" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1808026" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Radiology" 1 => "Interventional radiology" 2 => "Pediatrics" 3 => "Clinical competence" 4 => "Medical societies" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1808027" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Radiología" 1 => "Radiología intervencionista" 2 => "Pediatría" 3 => "Competencia clínica" 4 => "Sociedades médicas" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Pediatric interventional radiology is a dynamic and growing subspecialty. The new training pathways in interventional radiology, the maintenance of skills with a small volume of cases or complex procedures, the limited availability of specific pediatric equipment and materials pose significant challenges and opportunities.</p></span>" ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La radiología intervencionista pediátrica es una subespecialidad dinámica y en crecimiento. 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Radiology today
Paediatric interventional radiology: it’s not child’s play
Radiologia intervencionista en pediatría: no es un juego de ninos
a Division of Imaged Guided Therapy, Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids), University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
b Divisions of Neuroradiology and Imaged Guided Therapy, Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids), University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada