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array:23 [ "pii" => "S0214460323000335" "issn" => "02144603" "doi" => "10.1016/j.rlfa.2023.100331" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-01-01" "aid" => "100331" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L.U. y Asociación Española de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología e Iberoamericana de Fonoaudiología" "copyrightAnyo" => "2023" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Logop Fon Audiol. 2024;44:" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "itemSiguiente" => array:18 [ "pii" => "S0214460323001754" "issn" => "02144603" "doi" => "10.1016/j.rlfa.2023.100473" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-01-01" "aid" => "100473" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L.U. y Asociación Española de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología e Iberoamericana de Fonoaudiología" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Logop Fon Audiol. 2024;44:" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "en" => array:11 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Original article</span>" "titulo" => "Donna Jackson-Maldonado. A life dedicated to joining theory and practice in language development research" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Donna Jackson-Maldonado. Una vida dedicada a unir teoría y práctica en la investigación del desarrollo del lenguaje" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Alejandra Auza, Cecilia Rojas, Gabriela Simon-Cereijido, Miguel Pérez Pereira, Eva Aguilar Mediavilla, Luisa Josefina Alarcón Neve, M. Adelaida Restrepo, Lourdes Martínez Nieto, Eliseo Diez-Itza, Celia Renata Rosemberg, M. José Ezeizabarrena, Margareta Almgren, Elisabet Serrat, Miguel Angel Galeote, Natalia Arias, Mariela Resches, Llorenç Andreu" "autores" => array:17 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Alejandra" "apellidos" => "Auza" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Cecilia" "apellidos" => "Rojas" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Gabriela" "apellidos" => "Simon-Cereijido" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Miguel" "apellidos" => "Pérez Pereira" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Eva" "apellidos" => "Aguilar Mediavilla" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Luisa Josefina" "apellidos" => "Alarcón Neve" ] 6 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M. Adelaida" "apellidos" => "Restrepo" ] 7 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Lourdes" "apellidos" => "Martínez Nieto" ] 8 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Eliseo" "apellidos" => "Diez-Itza" ] 9 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Celia Renata" "apellidos" => "Rosemberg" ] 10 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "M. José" "apellidos" => "Ezeizabarrena" ] 11 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Margareta" "apellidos" => "Almgren" ] 12 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Elisabet" "apellidos" => "Serrat" ] 13 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Miguel Angel" "apellidos" => "Galeote" ] 14 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Natalia" "apellidos" => "Arias" ] 15 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Mariela" "apellidos" => "Resches" ] 16 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Llorenç" "apellidos" => "Andreu" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0214460323001754?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/02144603/0000004400000001/v1_202403260428/S0214460323001754/v1_202403260428/en/main.assets" ] "itemAnterior" => array:18 [ "pii" => "S0214460323000323" "issn" => "02144603" "doi" => "10.1016/j.rlfa.2023.100330" "estado" => "S300" "fechaPublicacion" => "2024-01-01" "aid" => "100330" "copyright" => "Elsevier España, S.L.U. y Asociación Española de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología e Iberoamericana de Fonoaudiología" "documento" => "article" "crossmark" => 1 "subdocumento" => "fla" "cita" => "Rev Logop Fon Audiol. 2024;44:" "abierto" => array:3 [ "ES" => false "ES2" => false "LATM" => false ] "gratuito" => false "lecturas" => array:1 [ "total" => 0 ] "en" => array:12 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Original article</span>" "titulo" => "Validation of voice scales into Spanish: Systematic review of the psychometric properties" "tienePdf" => "en" "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en" "tieneResumen" => array:2 [ 0 => "en" 1 => "es" ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Validación de escalas de voz al español: revisión sistemática de las propiedades psicométricas" ] ] "contieneResumen" => array:2 [ "en" => true "es" => true ] "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "contienePdf" => array:1 [ "en" => true ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 3473 "Ancho" => 2925 "Tamanyo" => 317463 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Diagram of selection process of included studies.</p>" ] ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "autoresLista" => "Antonio Velandrino Nicolás, Francisco Cabello Luque, María Parra Villazala, Elena Nieto Garrido, María José Sánchez Roca, Judit Álvarez-Gómez" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Antonio" "apellidos" => "Velandrino Nicolás" ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Francisco" "apellidos" => "Cabello Luque" ] 2 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "María" "apellidos" => "Parra Villazala" ] 3 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Elena" "apellidos" => "Nieto Garrido" ] 4 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "María José" "apellidos" => "Sánchez Roca" ] 5 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "Judit" "apellidos" => "Álvarez-Gómez" ] ] ] ] ] "idiomaDefecto" => "en" "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/S0214460323000323?idApp=UINPBA00004N" "url" => "/02144603/0000004400000001/v1_202403260428/S0214460323000323/v1_202403260428/en/main.assets" ] "en" => array:18 [ "idiomaDefecto" => true "cabecera" => "<span class="elsevierStyleTextfn">Original article</span>" "titulo" => "Infants’ early associations between segments of words and referents: Precursors of morphology acquisition" "tieneTextoCompleto" => true "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Alberto Falcón, Elda A. Alva-Canto, Leonardo Manriquez" "autores" => array:3 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Alberto" "apellidos" => "Falcón" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "falcon@uaem.mx" ] "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Elda A." "apellidos" => "Alva-Canto" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">b</span>" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Leonardo" "apellidos" => "Manriquez" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Laboratorio de Comunicación Humana y Cognición, Facultad de Comunicación Humana, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Mexico" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Laboratorio de Infantes, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Asociación entre segmentos de palabras y referentes en bebés: precursores de la adquisición de morfología" ] ] "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [ "original" => 0 "multimedia" => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1582 "Ancho" => 2159 "Tamanyo" => 153586 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Mean (+/−1 standard error) Difference of Total Looking Time at Target vs. Distractor for each of the three phases. The horizontal line at .00 indicates looking at chance level.</p>" ] ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Beyond segmenting words from the speech stream and mapping those words to their meaning, mastering the morphology of a language requires the additional ability to analyze words into morphemes (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105">Manning & Schütze, 1999</a>), the ability to recognize morphological regularity even in different words (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">Bedore & Leonard, 2000</a>), and the ability to associate this regularity with a meaning. For instance, in Spanish, very early in development children must segment the regular morphological element embedded in diminutive word forms like <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">carrito</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">caballito</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">perrito</span> (diminutive forms of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">cart</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">horse</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">dog</span>) and (in this case) the varying segment (lexeme) to link each of them to their corresponding meaning.</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Some studies have explored the ability to segment linguistic information and associate these segments to meanings. For example, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060">Graf-Estes, Evans, Alibali, and Saffran (2007)</a> showed that when 17-month-old infants previously segmented words from speech, these segments were easier to associate to novel objects, compared to novel sequences of familiar sounds, even when controlling total exposure to words. On the other hand, simultaneous segmentation and mapping has been documented by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155">Shukla, White, and Aslin (2011)</a>, who have shown that 6-month-olds can segment a novel auditory word form from running speech and simultaneously map it onto a visual referent when these word forms are aligned with phrasal prosodic constituents. Moreover, the authors suggest that word segmentation may be facilitated by the co-occurrence of the possibility of mapping this word form to a visual object. Similarly, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0135">Räsänen and Rasilo (2015)</a> outline the importance of cross-situational learning, according to which simultaneous segmentation and word-to-meaning mapping (by itself) facilitate learning and word-like segmentation.</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the units size of segmentation, most research has focused on the process by which discourse is segmented, based on distributional evidence, into word-like units (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090">Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995; Jusczyk, Houston, & Newsome, 1999; Morgan, Shi, & Allopenna, 1996; Newsome & Jusczyk, 1995; Peters, 1985; Saffran, Aslin & Newport, 1996</a>), which are therefore learned in their complete form. Other studies focus on how some morphemes, as grammatical elements (e.g., inflections), are used as keys to the segmentation of words (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0025">Christophe, Guasti, Nespor, Dupoux, & Van Ooyen, 1997; Gout, Christophe & Morgan, 2004; Höhle & Weissenborn, 2003</a>). In another set of studies on smaller than word-like units, the theoretical import is commonly attributed to the relation that these abilities could have to learning to read and write (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0020">Bryant, 2002; Hayes, Slater, & Brown, 2000; Jusczyk, Goodman, & Baumann, 1999; Treiman & Zukowski, 1996</a>), and the ways in which the ability to segment rhymes facilitates reading and the learning of new words (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050">Goswami, 1988</a>) and thus regard school or preschool stages of development.</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sensitivity and attention to word segments shown by language learners may depend on phonological properties of those languages, likely as well on the morphological properties of each language (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115">Mersad, Goyet, & Nazzi, 2011</a>). For example, in Japanese 15-month-old children use noun marking bound morphemes to segment the preceding noun from speech stream (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070">Haryu & Kajikawa, 2016</a>). Spanish learners may manifest a peculiar process of acquisition of the segmentation and mapping abilities that support syntax and morphology. For example, based solely on morphological cues, Spanish learners have been shown capable of understanding the meaning to the plural morpheme (-s) at an earlier age than English learners (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005">Arias-Trejo, Cantrell, Smith, & Canto, 2014</a>). This early acquisition may be facilitated by the morphosyntactic characteristics of Spanish, which exhibits a highly redundant morphology. For example, in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">todas las pelotas rojas</span> (all the red balls) the morpheme “-as”, which marks feminine gender and plural number, appears four times.</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Furthermore, Spanish has specific semantic demands associated to its morphosyntactic system. Thus, in a typical instance of child directed speech, important semantic information is available only through the meaning encoded on the verb's morphemes. Words like <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">juego</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">juegas</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">juegan</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I play</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">you play</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">they play</span>), carry their main meaning in the recurrent beginning (the lexeme), but the subject is encoded in second morpheme of the word (grammeme). Moreover, the ending of the verb not only encodes information about the subject, but also about tense and aspect (e.g., <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">juego</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">jugaba</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">jugué</span>; all different tenses of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">I play</span>), mood (e.g., <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">no juegues</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">no juegas</span>; don’t play vs. you don’t play). Also, words like <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">carrito</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">caballito</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">perrito</span> (diminutive forms of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">cart</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">horse</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">dog</span>), vary in their initial segment and thus their main meaning is also different but share common ending that relates them as diminutive versions of those nouns.</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As outlined by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115">Mersad et al. (2011)</a>, in the process of speech segmentation, infants mostly use cues that are specific to the language they are acquiring, and the development of these abilities should vary cross-linguistically. Spanish's distributional characteristics may facilitate the acquisition of the abilities that support not only the use of morphemes as cues for segmenting word-like units, but the segmentation (itself) of these morphemes (i.e., affixes and stems) from inflected words (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105">Manning & Schütze, 1999</a>) and the ability to recognize morphological regularities even in different words (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015">Bedore & Leonard, 2000</a>). Some evidence of this early segmentation may be contrasted in studies by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">Falcón, Canto, and Franco (2013)</a> and <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso and Alva (2022)</a>. In a Preferential Looking Paradigm, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0030">Falcón et al. (2013)</a> reported sensitivity to the regular segments at both beginning and ending of pseudowords. However, a preference to the list of words that were regular in one of its segments was only observed to pseudowords with ending regularity but not to those that were regular at the beginning (i.e., a significant preference to the control list was observed in that case). In a similar study, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso and Alva (2022)</a> confirmed the preference to pseudowords that were regular in their ending segment but did not test sensitivity to beginning segments.</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the developmental sequence of segmentation, we may assume that the mechanism underlying morpheme learning implies a “double” segmentation: firstly, segmenting word-like units from the speech stream and then segmenting morphemes from within those previously segmented words.). In this sequence, speech perception bootstraps word learning (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0175">Werker & Yeung, 2005</a>) and the association of segments (morphemes) to referents (be they concepts or grammatical functions). Nevertheless, this perceptual sequence is also dependent and facilitated by a consistent mapping between sounds and referents (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135">Räsänen & Rasilo, 2015; Shukla et al., 2011</a>).</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Morpheme and word-like segmentation may be essentially related. However, analyzing words and learning the function and meaning of their compounding segments may involve more fine-grained processes of generalization (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0195">Shi, 2014</a>). Previous studies have focused on assessing phonological parsing of natural morphemes on adults as well as on babies (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035">Finley & Newport, 2010; Marquis & Shi, 2012</a>), or even on testing sensitivity to sublexical segments on babies (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0030">Falcón et al., 2013; Jasso & Alva, 2022</a>, experiments 1 and 2).</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our study intends to evaluate a supposedly more complex ability: association of a referent (object) to an artificial morphological category (constructed through different pseudowords, with a common morpheme-like segment). Thus, this study aims to evaluate two different but complementary dimensions: (1) how children segment and categorize morpheme-like segments from pseudowords and (2) how children associate these morpheme-like segments to a referent. Unlike <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso and Alva (2022)</a> who ran an analogous study in their experiment 3, our work comprises not only the evaluation of the ending segment of pseudowords, but also the beginning segment which is a crucial part on the understanding of how and when the acquisition of morphology unfolds.</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Method</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We designed an experiment that partially resembles common situations infants face when hearing different variations of a word. For example, a common verb such as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">jugar</span> (play) can be presented as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">juega [conmigo]</span> (play with me) when uttered from an older sibling asking the infant to join him to play or as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">¿…ugamos?</span>, having virtually the same meaning in spite of the varying ending. Regularity in morphemes also appears at the end of different words. For example, diminutives are highly pervasive in infant directed speech, so infants frequently hear words such as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">carrito</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">perrito</span> or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">hermanito</span> (diminutive forms of cart, dog and brother). To replicate these characteristics of Spanish morphosyntax, in this study infants were presented to one of two novel objects (being the referent) while hearing two different pseudowords in each trial. Pseudowords coincided in one of two segments, either the beginning (e.g., /′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sabo/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sade</span>/) or the ending (e.g., /<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ta</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/se</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi</span>/). The onset of each word was separated by 2500<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms allowing pseudowords to be processed as two different units and not just as a single speech stream. Thus, trying to make our artificial language more like the segmentation of parts from a word than to the segmentation of words from a speech stream.</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The experiment was carried out using the Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm (IPLP), adapted by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045">Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, Cauley, and Gordon (1987)</a> for studies of language comprehension. Modifications were made for the purpose of evaluating the ability of 9–12-month-old infants to parse morpheme-like segments (in pseudowords that share either the initial or ending syllable), and particularly to evaluate their ability to associate these segments to a referent, in this case a novel object. The design of the experiment was based on a previous pilot study.</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Informed consent from caretakers on the behalf of the participant children was obtained. The protocol was conducted according to the corresponding ethics for this kind of studies.</p><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Participants</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The final sample included 38 infants who were aged 9–12 months (mean: 10.25, range: 9.1–12.13). Nine infants were previously excluded who did not complete a minimum of 4 of the 10 testing trials to be included in the statistical analysis. All the infants were born at term, were from homes speaking exclusively Spanish, and where parents reported no diagnosis or suspicion of hearing, visual, perinatal, or neurological impairments.</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Word segmentation has been tested in infants as young as 6 months old. However, the potential cognitive demands that may involve segmenting and simultaneously associating morpheme-like segments to a referent suggested a more conservative approach, thus including older children for the present experiment. This target age was chosen according to previous studies, which show children's sensitivity to sound similarities in pseudowords from 9 months of age (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095">Jusczyk, Goodman et al., 1999</a>) and also according to the hypothesis that precursory abilities of processing morphemes may develop around this age.</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Stimuli</span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Pseudowords</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Forty CVCV pseudowords were prepared, divided into two categories: alliteratives (20) and rhymes (20). Alliterations were defined by regularity in the first syllable (e.g., /′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sato/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">same/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">saru</span>/), and rhymes by the second syllable (e.g., /<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ta</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/se</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/do</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi</span>/). Pseudowords were formed from phonemes with a high frequency in Spanish, as well as a high phonetic contrast, based on the International Phonetic Alphabet. Repeating segments were stressed independently if they were featured in the beginning or the end of the pseudowords. Which syllable (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi</span> or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sa</span>) was used in the initial or final segment was counterbalanced across participants. It is very important to note that the pseudowords presented in the testing phase, including those that belonged to the same category, were distinct from those used in the training phase. The auditory stimuli were recorded by a female speaker who was instructed to read each novel word in a phrase with the following form: <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">¡Mira</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">same/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sado/!</span> (“Look, /′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">same</span>/, /′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sado</span>/!”) using infant directed speech (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Visual stimuli</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Two distinct, novel, colorful, three-dimensional objects were created, using the 3-D computer design program <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">MilkShape 3D</span>, version 1.8.1 (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig. 1</a>). The visual stimuli were associated with pseudowords during the experiments. Two versions of each object were created: an animated one used in the training phase and a static version used in the testing phase (as in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010">Ballem & Plunkett, 2005</a>). In order to avoid any effect caused by the type of movement, both objects in the animated version were projected rotating around their vertical axes. Both stimuli were created using the same number of pixels and were projected on a black background. The assignment of categories and the order of presentation were counterbalanced.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Procedure</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The evaluation of infants’ performance was carried out on an individual basis using the Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm (IPLP), which evaluated their ability to categorize alliterative and rhyming pseudowords and associate each category with a distinct object. Infants were seated on the laps of their mother or other caregiver in a cubicle, with a 50-inch screen in the center, in front of the infant. The infant's gaze was monitored by three video cameras installed behind the cubicle wall, facing the infant. A monitor and computer for the projection of the experiment and recording of the session were located outside the cubicle.</p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The experiment consisted of a total of 20 trials, 10 for training and 10 for testing, divided into two blocks of training and two of testing. The training and testing trials were alternated: eight training trials, six testing trials, two more training trials, and four more testing trials (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig. 2</a>). The configuration of the experiment was informed by a previous pilot study. However, the exact number of trials needed for learning was uncertain, thus the experiment was organized in two blocks.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Training phase</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Five training trials, divided into two blocks, were performed for each category: four in the first block and one in the second. Each trial associated a new object with two pseudowords corresponding to one of the two lists (e.g., <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Look</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bime/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/</span>′<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">biro</span>/<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">!</span>). Trials had a total duration of 5000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms. The onset of the phrase occurred at 1000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms and ended at 4000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms. It is important noticing that the two pseudowords presented in the training trials were ‘clearly’ (at least from an adult's perspective) separated by a 500<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms pause while no pause was included in word segments (i.e., syllables within pseudwords). Unlike other experiments that test word segmentation from a continuous speech stream this design intended to test for intra-word segmentation.</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">During the training phase, the objects were projected on the center of the screen. In some IPLP studies, it has been observed that children younger than 18 months of age are able of associating a word with an object after just three repetitions of the word. However, it is important to note that the task in this experiment did not seek a one-to-one word-object association, but rather the association of an entire category of several pseudowords to an object. Given this consideration as well as the fact that these infants were at most 12 months old, it was decided to include a larger number of training trials presented in two uneven blocks to try avoiding children's fatigue.</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the training trial, the first word was played at the same time that the object began its rotation, in accordance with previous results of (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040">Gogate & Bahrick, 1998</a>), who found that presenting the sound and the movement simultaneously facilitated the association between the two.</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Testing phase</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Each category included three testing trials in the first block and two in the second one. In each trial, infants heard a word from one of the two lists, repeated twice. The pseudowords used in the testing trials were different from those heard in the training trials; to ensure that what was being evaluated was a segmentation/categorization task rather than merely recognition of the pseudowords.</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the test trials, the two images appeared simultaneously in static form to avoid any bias related to the effects of animation. <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig. 3</a> shows a typical test trial in which objects were presented for a total of 6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms. For the first 2000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms they were presented without auditory stimulus, in order to measure the duration of the infants’ attention toward each object in the absence of pseudowords (pre-naming). For the next 2000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms (post-naming 1), one of the objects was referred to with a word from the category it was associated with during the training phase (e.g., /<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bima</span>/), in the phrase <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">¡Mira, _____!</span> (Look, _____!). Post-naming phase initiated at the onset of the regular segment. Also, in order to replicate the form of the phrases used during the training phase, children heard a second instance of the category (e.g., /<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bide</span>/) at 4000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms (post-naming 2). This additional window of 2000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms allowed us to test a potential learning dependent only on the utterance of two pseudowords (as in the training phase).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0110">Planned analyses</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Evaluation of infants’ learning was carried out off-line through the analysis of the recorded videos. Using these videos, the trials were divided into frames of 33<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms (i.e., 30 frames per second) and the direction of the infants’ gaze in each was coded. The coding was performed <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">blind</span>: an experienced researcher, unaware of the target word from each trial, coded whether the infants looked left or right. In addition, 20% of the total of infant's recordings were coded by an independent experimenter. The nonparametric correlation between both coders showed a 96% reliability (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">τ</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">b</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.96; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05).</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Frame-by-frame analysis was used to calculate total looking time at target (the named stimulus) and total looking time at distractor (the stimulus not named). From these data <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Difference of Total Looking Time at Target</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Distractor</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">DTLT</span>), <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Proportion of Looking Time at Target</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Distractor</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">PLT</span>) and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Difference of Longest Look at Target</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Distractor</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">DLLk</span>) were calculated, and these results were considered as the infants’ preference, which were used to carry out a repeated-measures ANOVA: naming: pre-naming vs. post-naming (2) x segment: initial vs. ending (2). This analysis was carried out in two different time windows (i.e., 0–4000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms and 4000–6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms, respectively), according to each of the two target pseudowords uttered during each test trial. The first time-window was analyzed considering 0–2000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms as the pre-naming phase and 2000–4000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms as the post-naming 1 phase. Thereby, the second window was analyzed with 2000–4000 as the pre-naming phase and 4000–6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms as the post-naming 2 phase.</p></span></span></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0115">Results</span><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant main effects related with the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">naming</span> factor, on all measures (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>): <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Difference of Total Looking Time at Target</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Distractor</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">1,37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>7.138, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.011), <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Proportion of Looking Time at Target</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Distractor</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">1,37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4.910, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.033) and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Difference of Longest Look at Target</span> vs. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Distractor</span> (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">F</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">1,37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6.944, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.012). No other significant main effect or interaction with other factor was observed. Previous analyses considering all measures and increases in looking from pre to post-naming 1 did not show any difference between the first and the second block (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.1).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given that no effects were observed related to the position of morpheme-like segment (i.e., initial vs. ending), subsequent analyses were collapsed into a single factor (naming: pre-naming vs. post-naming 1). The <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-tests showed a statistically significant increase in infants’ preference to the target from pre-naming to post-naming, in all three analyzed measures: DTLT (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2.853, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.007, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.74), PLT (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2.260, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.030, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.55), DLLk (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2.660, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.011, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.74). These differences are shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0010">Table 2</a>. A representative result is illustrated in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig. 4</a> by showing the Difference of Total Looking Time at Target vs. Distractor (i.e., increase from the pre-naming to the post-naming phase of the test trials).</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Looking preference after the second word (4000 to 6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms) was also computed and tested on similar statistical analyses. <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span>-Tests were used to compare looking behavior in the post-naming 1 phase (first word) vs. post-naming 2 phase (second word): DTLT (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1.88, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>−.36), PLT (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1.01, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>−.18), DLLk (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1.68, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>−.32); and also the pre-naming phase vs. post-naming 2 phase: DTLT (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0.03, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.01), PLT (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0.67, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.19), DLLk (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">t</span><span class="elsevierStyleInf">37</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0.16, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">d</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>=<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05). No significant effects of the second word were observed. Time course of looking behavior over the complete trial (0–6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms) is shown in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig. 5</a>.</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0120">Discussion</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In addition to the perceptual abilities that include the segmentation of word and morpheme-like units and the categorization of words based on this information, the acquisition of the morphology of a language is aimed at developing the capacity to create a mapping between the form of the morpheme (or segment) and its function or referent (meaning). The aim of the present work was to assess, 9–12-month old's ability to segment morpheme-like segments from pseudowords and associate these segments to a referent in an Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm procedure. Our results showed that 9–12-month-old Spanish learners are able to associate a novel object to pseudowords that were not actually heard but share a regular segment with those previously associated during a training phase, thus making a morpheme-like segment and referent association.</p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work coincides with previous studies that show the importance of word segmentation and its further mapping to a meaning and more similar studies which outline a possible and perhaps counterintuitive facilitation of segmentation when infants simultaneously segment and map word-like segments to a meaning (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso & Alva, 2022</a>). With this regard, we agree with previous authors (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0135">Räsänen & Rasilo, 2015; Shukla et al., 2011</a>) who argue that despite potentially demanding more cognitive resources, simultaneous segmentation and mapping to meaning can provide learners with a more reliable context to achieve segmentation itself (see <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140">Saffran, 2014</a> for a review). Additionally, our results rely on a different kind of unit of segmentation: a morpheme-like segment embedded in pseudowords and with semantic function. These findings are comparable to those from <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070">Haryu and Kajikawa (2016)</a> who show that 15-month-old Japanese learners learn to segment and rely on morphemes that mark nouns in their language. Also replicate previous results observed by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso and Alva (2022)</a> who showed that 12-month-old infants map morpheme-like segments to novel objects.</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Unlike <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso and Alva (2022)</a>, who performed a similar stud, we tested segmentation and mapping regarding the beginning as well as the ending of pseudowords. However, the Spanish-learning infants from this study did not show a differential sensitivity to any of the segments. That is, children were able to learn the regular segment independently of its position (i.e., beginning or ending). This observation can be contrasted with several studies that show a biased sensitivity to beginnings (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0185">Fernald, Swingley, & Pinto, 2001; Jusczyk, Goodman et al., 1999; Swingley, 2005</a>) and with another set of studies that show that this bias can be different depending on the phonotactics of each language (e.g., <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065">Hallé & de Boysson-Bardies, 1994</a>). The characteristics of Spanish, including its prosody, accentuation, and most importantly its morphological variants (inflections), lend greater perceptual importance to the segments that have a linguistic function. In the case of Spanish, the main meaning of most words is found at the beginning, but the ending also carries a great deal of information. However future experiments could increase their sensitivity in their instruments in order to more precisely define the corresponding weight of the beginnings and endings of words.</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is worthwhile to outline that the regular segment (either beginning or ending) coincided not only in its CV configuration, but also in its prosody (i.e., the repeating segments were stressed independently if they were featured in the beginning or the end of the pseudowords). This may bring the question of whether the irregular segment was really processed or infants “only heard” the stressed segment. According to <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0190">Johnson (2005)</a>, infants are able to retain detailed representations of unstressed syllables. Similarly, as <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180">Curtin, Mintz and Christiansen (2005)</a> have shown, even English learners (7-month-olds) encode unstress information although these infants predominately rely on stressed syllables for word segmentation. Moreover, <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085">Jasso and Alva (2022)</a> have recently shown that infants can segment and map morpheme-like segments at the end of a pseudoword even when the stressed segment is located at the beginning of the pseudowords. This may allow us to assume that each word was entirely processed, and the regular syllable was segmented and associated to the object as a morpheme-like segment. On the other hand, in Spanish, morphemes used as suffixes (at the end of words) tend to be consistently stressed (or unstressed), however lexemes are more inconsistent in their stress patterns, dependently on the morphemes they are combined with. Further work should take these factors into account.</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0125">Conclusions</span><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We argue that from a very early age, Spanish-learning infants exercise the cognitive abilities suggested by <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130">Peters (1985)</a> as necessary for the learning of morphemes: phonological identification, location of the recurring segment or morpheme, and ultimately mapping the morpheme to its function (grammatical or semantic).</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although further crosslinguistic research should be performed, our findings may prospectively contribute to explain how the morphological characteristics of languages have crucial effects on the development of specific language processing abilities. This is in line with the general idea that perceptual abilities of infants are directed at learning the patterns of the language to which they are exposed, the patterns known as distributional evidence: regularities in the appearance, position, order, form, and relative meanings of the elements in a set of utterances (<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0140">Saffran, 2014; Saffran & Kirkham, 2018</a>; see also <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0170">Werker & Curtin, 2005; Werker & Yeung, 2005</a>).</p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mastery of the morphosyntax of a language involves more complex abilities and knowledge, such as knowledge of the function of all the morphemes that make up a word, as well as knowledge of the degree to which the function of such morphemes is generalizable. However, the simple associations observed in the present study are an essential initial step in reaching more advances in the stages of the acquisition of the morphosyntax of a language. Still, additional research must try to tackle pending issues, as for example, what is the importance of the simultaneous semantic association (i.e., the association of the unchanging syllables to the referent), as compared with the exclusively phonological segmentation, in the morpheme-based categorization of words? When are infants capable of learning, for instance, each of the two morpheme-like segments and their two distinct functions or meanings, similarly as expert Spanish speakers do with real morphology?</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0130">Conflict of interests</span><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</p></span></span>" "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:11 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2113732" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Antecedents and objective" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Participants and method" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1800787" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres2113731" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Antecedentes y objetivo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Participantes y método" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1800786" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "Introduction" ] 5 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Method" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Participants" ] 1 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Stimuli" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Pseudowords" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "Visual stimuli" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "Procedure" "secciones" => array:3 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Training phase" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Testing phase" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0070" "titulo" => "Planned analyses" ] ] ] ] ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "Results" ] 7 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "Discussion" ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "Conflict of interests" ] 10 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2023-04-13" "fechaAceptado" => "2023-10-29" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1800787" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Language acquisition" 1 => "Word segmentation" 2 => "Phonological categorization" 3 => "Word learning" 4 => "Morphology" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1800786" "palabras" => array:5 [ 0 => "Adquisición del lenguaje" 1 => "Segmentación de palabras" 2 => "Categorización fonológica" 3 => "Aprendizaje de palabras" 4 => "Morfología" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Antecedents and objective</span><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">During morphology acquisition, children must learn to segment and associate the morphemes of a word to its meaning or grammatical function, despite the complex morphological variability children may encounter in their linguistic environment. The present study explores the ability of 9–12-month-old infants to segment a morpheme-like syllable of varying pseudowords and associate it to a novel object.</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Participants and method</span><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Thirty-nine Spanish-learning infants participated in an experiment involving a preferential looking task. During each of five training trials per category, infants were presented to one of two novel objects while simultaneously heard two instances of pseudowords with a common morpheme-like segment either at the beginning or the end of the pseudoword (e.g., /tabi/, /babi/, for object 1; or /sato/, /same/, for object 2). Children were then tested in five trials per object. The two trained objects were presented side-by-side while infants heard new pseudowords that followed the pattern of the pseudowords that were heard during training.</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Results show an effective association between a referent and a group of pseudowords with a repeating morpheme-like segment. This association is observed both with beginning and final segments.</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">These findings show infants’ basic abilities for the processing of morphology at an earlier age than it has been suggested. The potential influence of morphologically rich languages such as Spanish is considered.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" "titulo" => "Antecedents and objective" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" "titulo" => "Participants and method" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0015" "titulo" => "Results" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0020" "titulo" => "Conclusions" ] ] ] "es" => array:3 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Antecedentes y objetivo</span><p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Durante la adquisición de la morfología, los niños deben aprender a segmentar y a asociar los morfemas de una palabra a su significado o función gramatical, a pesar de la compleja variabilidad morfológica que los niños pueden encontrar en su entorno lingüístico. El presente estudio explora la capacidad de los bebés de 9 a 12 meses para segmentar una sílaba tipo morfema de varias palabras y asociarla a un objeto novedoso.</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Participantes y método</span><p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Treinta y nueve bebés aprendices del español participaron en un experimento que implicaba una tarea de preferencia de mirada. Se realizaron cinco ensayos de entrenamiento por categoría, en los que se presentaba uno de dos objetos novedosos, mientras que simultáneamente escuchaban dos instancias de palabras con un segmento tipo morfema común (e.g., <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/tabi/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/babi/</span>, para el objeto 1, o <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/sato/</span>, <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">/same/</span>, para el objeto 2). Luego, los niños fueron evaluados en cinco ensayos de prueba por categoría. Los dos objetos del entrenamiento aparecían, uno al lado del otro, mientras escuchaban nuevas palabras que seguían el patrón de las palabras escuchadas durante el entrenamiento.</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los resultados muestran una asociación efectiva entre un referente y un grupo de palabras con un segmento repetitivo similar a un morfema.</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Estos hallazgos muestran las habilidades básicas de los bebés para el procesamiento de la morfología a una edad más temprana de lo que se había sugerido. Se considera la potencial influencia de lenguas morfológicamente ricas, como el español.</p></span>" "secciones" => array:4 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0025" "titulo" => "Antecedentes y objetivo" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0030" "titulo" => "Participantes y método" ] 2 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0035" "titulo" => "Resultados" ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "abst0040" "titulo" => "Conclusiones" ] ] ] ] "multimedia" => array:7 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0005" "etiqueta" => "Figure 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr1.jpeg" "Alto" => 1944 "Ancho" => 1350 "Tamanyo" => 63934 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Novel objects used in the experiment. The objects’ association to each category of pseudowords was counterbalanced across participants.</p>" ] ] 1 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0010" "etiqueta" => "Figure 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr2.jpeg" "Alto" => 1052 "Ancho" => 2433 "Tamanyo" => 129233 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Sequence of trials for the experiment. Trials were separated by a gray screen of 1000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms (not shown in the figure). During each of the training or test trials children heard two pseudowords from one of the two categories.</p>" ] ] 2 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0015" "etiqueta" => "Figure 3" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr3.jpeg" "Alto" => 583 "Ancho" => 2137 "Tamanyo" => 69467 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Typical test trial. Pre-naming phase begin at 0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms with the presentation of the two objects. Post-naming 1 began at 2000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms with the onset of the first target word. Post-naming 2 began at 4000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms with the onset of the second target word. The objects remained displayed for the total of 6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms.</p>" ] ] 3 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0020" "etiqueta" => "Figure 4" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg" "Alto" => 1582 "Ancho" => 2159 "Tamanyo" => 153586 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Mean (+/−1 standard error) Difference of Total Looking Time at Target vs. Distractor for each of the three phases. The horizontal line at .00 indicates looking at chance level.</p>" ] ] 4 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "fig0025" "etiqueta" => "Figure 5" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "figura" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg" "Alto" => 1219 "Ancho" => 2435 "Tamanyo" => 138906 ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0065" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Time course of looking preference during a 6000<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ms window of trial presentation. The vertical line marks the onset of the target word. Scores higher than 0.5 denote a preference to the target object, while scores under 0.5 indicate a preference to the distractor.</p>" ] ] 5 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at1" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Initial \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Ending \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sato</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">tabi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">same</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">babi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">saru</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">ribi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sagu</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">gobi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sane</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">nabi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sasi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sobi</span> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3495558.png" ] ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0070" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Examples of pseudowords presented in the experiment. Syllables (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">bi</span> or <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">sa</span>) used in the initial or final segment were counterbalanced across participants.</p>" ] ] 6 => array:8 [ "identificador" => "tbl0010" "etiqueta" => "Table 2" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "detalles" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "at2" "detalle" => "Table " "rol" => "short" ] ] "tabla" => array:2 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Preference measure \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Pre-namingM (SD) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Post-naming 1M (SD) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n \t\t\t\t " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Post-naming 2M (SD) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Difference of Total Looking at Target vs. Distractor \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">−48.33 (163.58) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">113.68 (327.81)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">−45.85 (373.82) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Proportion of Looking at Target vs. Distractor \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">.48 (.05) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">.52 (.09)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">.49 (.11) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">Difference of Longest Look at Target vs. Distractor \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">−48.22 (154.85) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">108.14 (340.72)<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tblfn0005">*</a> \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n \t\t\t\t " align="char" valign="\n \t\t\t\t\ttop\n \t\t\t\t">−37.27 (−156.78) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table> """ ] "imagenFichero" => array:1 [ 0 => "xTab3495557.png" ] ] ] "notaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "tblfn0005" "etiqueta" => "*" "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Significant difference compared to pre-naming (<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span><<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>.05).</p>" ] ] ] "descripcion" => array:1 [ "en" => "<p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Results. Mean and standard deviation of looking preference pre and post-naming in three measures (DTLT, PLT and DLLk). Looking times are presented in milliseconds.</p>" ] ] ] "bibliografia" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "References" "seccion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "bibs0015" "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:39 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "bib0005" "etiqueta" => "Arias-Trejo et al., 2014" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "contribucion" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Early comprehension of the Spanish plural" "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etal" => false "autores" => array:4 [ 0 => "N. Arias-Trejo" 1 => "L.M. Cantrell" 2 => "L.B. Smith" 3 => "E.A.A. 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