Información del artículo
La enfermedad cardiovascular es la causa más importante de mortalidad en los pacientes diabéticos. Tanto la hiperglucemia per se como la acumulación de otros factores de riesgo cardiovascular hacen que los sujetos diabéticos tengan un riesgo coronario significativamente superior al de la población general. En los últimos años se han publicado diferentes estudios de intervención tanto en pacientes diabéticos como en subgrupos de sujetos diabéticos de la población general sobre el control de factores de riesgo como la hipertensión,la microalbuminuria, la dislipemia, la inflamación, la agregación plaquetaria y la hiperglucemia. El efecto beneficioso observado al actuar en los diferentes factores de riesgo lleva a la conclusión de que el tratamiento de los pacientes diabéticos debe ser multidisciplinario.Hace 15 años, en la Declaración de Sant Vincent se establecieron las guías internacionales que instaban a controlar todos los factores de riesgo cardiovascular en el paciente diabético con el objetivo de reducer la elevada mortalidad cardiovascular que estos pacientes presentaban.Desde su publicación, la evolución de la mortalidad cardiovascular en los sujetos diabéticos parece haber sido positiva, aunque no se haya conseguido igualar el riesgo de estos pacientes al de la población general.
Palabras clave:
Diabetes
Factores de riesgo cardiovascular
Infarto de miocardio
Enfermedad cardiovascular
Cardiovascular disease is the most important cause of death in diabetic patients. Both hyperglycemia per se and the clustering of other cardiovascular risk factors significantly increase the risk for coronary heart disease in diabetic patients over that found in the general population.In the last few years, interventional studies have been reported on the management of cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, microalbuminuria, dyslipidemia, inflammation, platelet aggregation and hyperglycemia in both diabetic patients and in selected diabetic subjects from the general population or population-based studies. The beneficial effects of treating these cardiovascular risk factors have led to the belief that the therapeutic approach to diabetic patients should be multidisciplinary. Fifteen years ago, the international guidelines of the Declaration of Saint Vincent for the control of cardiovascular risk factors in diabetic patients were established to reduce the increased mortality in these subjects.Cardiovascular mortality trends after this declaration seem to have improved in diabetic subjects but have not reached those in the general population.
Key words:
Diabetes
Cardiovascular risk factors
Myocardial infarction
Cardiovascular disease
El Texto completo está disponible en PDF
Bibliografía
[1.]
A.S. Krolewski, E.J. Kosinski, J.H. Warram, J.H. Warram, O.S. Leland, E.J. Busick.
Magnitude and determinants of coronary artery disease in juvenile-onset, insulin-dependant diabetes mellitus.
Am J Cardiol, 59 (1987), pp. 750-755
[2.]
N.J. Morrish, S.L. Wang, L.K. Stevens, J.H. Fuller, H. Keen.
Mortality and causes of death in the WHO multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes.
Diabetologia, 44 (2001), pp. S14-21
[3.]
W. Gatling, S. Tufail, M.A. Mullee, T.A. Westacott, R.D. Hill.
Mortality rates in diabetic patients from a community-based population compared to local age/sex matched controls.
Diabet Med, 14 (1997), pp. 316-320
[4.]
S.D. Kanters, J.D. Banga, R.P. Stolk, A. Algra.
Incidence and determinants of mortality and cardiovascular events in diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis.
Vasc Med, 4 (1999), pp. 67-75
[5.]
T. Almdal, H. Scharling, J.S. Jensen.
The independent effect of type 2 diabetes mellitus on ischemic heart disease, stroke, and death: a population-based study of 13,000 men and women with 20 years of follow-up.
Arch Intern Med, 164 (2004), pp. 1422-1426
[6.]
A.C. Powers.
Diabetes Mellitus.
Principios de Medicina Interna, 15.a ed., pp. 2467-2500
[7.]
S. Letho, T. Ronnemaa, S.M. Haffner, K. Pyorala, V. Kallio, M. Laakso.
Dyslipidemia and hyperglycaemia predict coronary heart disease events in middle-age patients with NIDDM.
Diabetes, 46 (1997), pp. 1354-1359
[8.]
M. Wei, S.P. Gaskill, S.M. Haffner, M.P. Stern.
Effect of diabetes and level of glycemia on all cause and cardiovascular mortality:the San Antonio Heart Study.
Diabetes Care, 21 (1998), pp. 1167-1172
[9.]
D.K. Anderson, K. Svardsudd.
Long-term glycemic control relates to mortality in type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 18 (1995), pp. 1534-1543
[10.]
T. Smiley, P. Oh, L.G. Shane.
The relationship of insulin resistance measured by reliable indexes to coronary artery disease risk factors and outcomes; a systematic review.
J Cardiol, 17 (2001), pp. 797-805
[11.]
F. Abbasi, W.B. Brown, C. Lamendola, T. McLaughlin, G.M. Reaven, et al.
Relationship between obesity, insulin resistance and coronary heart disease risk.
J Am Cardiol, 40 (2002), pp. 937-943
[12.]
R.J. Heine, J.M. Dekker.
Beyond postprandial hyperglycaemia:metabolic factors associated with cardiovascular disease.
Diabetologia, 45 (2002), pp. 461-475
[13.]
M.A. Austin, J.L. Breslow, C.H. Hennekens, J.E. Buring, W.C. Willet, R.M. Krauss.
Low-density lipoprotein subclass patterns and risk of myocardial infarction.
JAMA, 260 (1988), pp. 1917-1921
[14.]
M.I. Usitupa, L.K. Niskanen, O. Siitonen, E. Voutilainen, K. Pyorala, et al.
Ten year cardiovascular mortality in relation to risk factors and abnormalities in lipoprotein composition in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic and non-diabetic subjects.
Diabetologia, 36 (1993), pp. 1175-1184
[15.]
W.C. Duckworth.
Hyperglycemia and cardiovascular disease.
Cure Atheroscler Rep, 3 (2001), pp. 383-391
[16.]
S. Schurgin, S. Rich, T. Mazzone.
Increased prevalence of significant coronary artery calcification in patients with diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 24 (2001), pp. 335-338
[17.]
B. Waldecker, W. Waas, W. Haberbosch, R. Voss, M.K. Steen-Muller, A. Hiddeseen, et al.
Type 2 diabetes and acute myocardial infarction. Angiographic findings and results of an invasive therapeutic approach in type 2 diabetic versus non diabetic patients.
Diabetes Care, 22 (1999), pp. 1832-1838
[18.]
DCCT/EDIC Study Research Group. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes.N Engl J Med. 353 2005 2643-53.
[19.]
UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group.
Intensive blood glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33).
Lancet, 352 (1998), pp. 837-853
[20.]
UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group.
Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes: (UKPDS 34).
Lancet, 352 (1998), pp. 854-865
[21.]
J.A. Dormandy, B. Charbonnel, D.J. Ekland, E. Erdmann, M. Massi-Benedetti, I.K. Moules, et al.
Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial.
Lancet, 366 (2005), pp. 1279-1289
[22.]
K.j. Mather, S. Verma, T.J. Anderson.
Improved endothelial function with metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 37 (2001), pp. 1344-1350
[23.]
European Diabetes Policy Group.
1998-1999: a desktop guide to type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Diabetic Medicine, 16 (1999), pp. 716-730
[24.]
B.L. Rodriguez, N. Lau, C.M. Burchfield, R.D. Abbott, D.S. Sharp, K. Yano, et al.
Glucose intolerance and 23-year risk of coronary heart disease and total mortality. The Honolulu Heart Program.
Diabetes Care, 22 (1999), pp. 1262-1265
[25.]
The DECODE study group on behalf of the European Diabetes Epidemiology Group. Glucose tolerance and cardiovascular mortality. Comparison of fasting and 2-h diagnostic criteria. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:397-404.
[26.]
K. Pyorala.
Relationship of glucose tolerance and plasma insulin to the incidence of coronary heart disease: results from two population studies in Finland.
Diabetes Care, 2 (1979), pp. 131-141
[27.]
M. Tomigaga, H. Eguchi, H. Manaka, K. Igarashi, T. Kato, A. Sekikawa.
Impaired glucose tolerance is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, but not impaired fasting glucose. The Funagata Diabetes Study.
Diabetes Care, 22 (1999), pp. 920-924
[28.]
M. Hanefeld, S. Fischer, U. Julius, J. Schulze, U. Schwanebeck, H. Schmechel, et al.
Risk factors for myocardial infarction and death in newly detected NIDDM: the Diabetes Intervention Study, 11-year follow up.
Diabetologia, 39 (1996), pp. 1577-1583
[29.]
M. Shichiri, H. Kishikawa, Y. Ohkubo, N. Wake.
Long term results of the Kumamoto Study on optimal diabetes control in type 2 diabetic patients.
Diabetes Care, 23 (2000), pp. B21-B29
[30.]
Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;10:3143-421.
[31.]
American Diabetes Association.
Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 25 (2002), pp. S74-S77
[32.]
L. Mykkanen, J. Huusitsto, J. Marniemi, S.M. Haffner, R. Bergman, M. Laakso.
Hyperinsulinemia predicts multiple atherogenic changes in lipoproteins in elderly subjects.
Artherioscler Thromb, 14 (1994), pp. 518-526
[33.]
J.A. Beckman, M.A. Creager, P. Libby.
Diabetes and atherosclerosis.
JAMA, 287 (2002), pp. 2570-2581
[34.]
M. Laakso, S. Letho, I. Penttila, K. Pyorala.
Lipids and lipoproteins predicting coronary heart disease mortality and morbidity in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes.
Circulation, 88 (1993), pp. 1421-1430
[35.]
K.M. West, M.M. Ahuja, P.H. Bennet, A. Czyzyk, O.M. De Acosta, J.H. Fuller.
The role of circulating glucose and triglyceride concentrations and their interactions with other “risk factors”as determinants of arterial disease in nine diabetic population samples from the WHO multinational study.
Diabetes Care, 6 (1983), pp. 361-369
[36.]
C.D. Gardner, S.P. Fortmann, R.M. Krauss.
Association of small low-density lipoprotein particles with the incidence of coronary artery disease in men and women.
JAMA, 276 (1996), pp. 882-888
[37.]
M.A. Austin, A. Kamigaki, J.E. Hokanson.
Low-density lipoprotein particle size is a risk factor for coronary heart disease independent of triglyceride and HDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of three prospective studies in men.
Circulation, 99 (1999), pp. 1124-1127
[38.]
S. Lahdenpera, K.M. Tilly, M.H. Vourinen, T. Kuusi, M.R. Taskinen.
Effects of gemfibrozil: on low-density lipoprotein particle size density distribution, and composition in patients with type II diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 16 (1993), pp. 584-592
[39.]
M.J. Chapman, M. Guerin, E. Bruckert.
Atherogenic, dense lowdensity lipoproteins. Pathophysiology and new therapeutic approaches.
Eur Heart J, 19 (1998), pp. A24-A30
[40.]
A. Chait, R. Brazg, D. Tribble, R.M. Krauss.
Susceptibility of small, dense, low-density lipoproteins to oxidative modification in subjects with the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype,pattern B.
An J Med, 94 (1993), pp. 350-356
[41.]
R.C. Turner, H. Millns, H.A. Neil, I.M. Stratton, S.E. Manley, D.R. Matthews, et al.
Risk factors for coronary artery disease in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS).
BMJ, 316 (1998), pp. 823-828
[42.]
Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with sinvastatin in 20536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:7-22.
[43.]
P.S. Sever, B. Dahlof, N.R. Poulter, H. Wedel, G. Beevers, M. Caulfield, et al.
Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower than average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Lipid Lowering Arm(ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial.
Lancet, 361 (2003), pp. 1149-1158
[44.]
P.S. Sever, N.R. Poulter, B. Dahlof, H. Wedel, R. Collins, G. Beevers, et al.
Reduction in cardiovascular events with atorvastatin in 2532 patients with type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 28 (2005), pp. 1151-1157
[45.]
H.M. Colhoun, D.J. Betteridge, P.N. Durrington, G.A. Hitman, H.A. Neil, S.J. Livingstone, et al.
Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study(CARDS): multicentre randomized placebo-controlled trial.
Lancet, 364 (2004), pp. 685-696
[46.]
K. Pyorala, T.R. Pedeson, J. Kierkshus, O. Faergeman, A.G. Olsson, G. Thorgeirsson.
Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease: a subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S).
Diabetes Care, 20 (1997), pp. 614-620
[47.]
C.A. Arampatzis, D. Goedhart, P.W. Serruys, F. Saia, P.A. Lemos, P. de Feyter.
Fluvastatin reduces the impact of diabetes on long-term outcome after coronary intervention – a Lescol Intervention Prevention Study (LIPS) substudy.
Am Heart J, 149 (2005), pp. 190-193
[48.]
R.B. Goldberg, M.J. Mellies, F.M. Sacks, L.A. Moye, B.V. Howard, W.J. Howard, et al.
Cardiovascular events and their reduction with pravastatin in diabetic and glucose-intolerant myocardial infarction survivors with average cholesterol levels: a subgroup analyses in the Cholesterol and Recurrents Events (CARE) trial.
Circulation, 98 (1998), pp. 2513-2519
[49.]
P. Koskinen, M. Manttari, V. Manninen, J.K. Huttunen, O.P. Heinonen, M.H. Frick.
Coronary heart disease incidence in NIDDM patients in the Helsinki Heart Study.
Diabetes Care, 15 (1992), pp. 820-825
[50.]
H.B. Rubins, S.J. Robins, D. Collins, D.B. Nelson, M.B. Elam, E.J. Schaefer, et al.
Diabetes, plasma insulin, cardiovascular disease subgroup analysis from the department of Veterans Affair High-Density Lipoprotein Intervention Trial (VA-HIT).
Arch Intern Med, 162 (2002), pp. 2597-2604
[51.]
Effect of fenobibrate on progression of coronary artery disease in type 2 diabetes: the Diabetes Atherosclerosis Intervention Study, a randomised study. Lancet. 2001;357:905-10.
[52.]
A. Keech, R.J. Simes, P. Barter, J. Best, R. Scott, M.R. Taskinen, et al.
Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial.
Lancet, 366 (2005), pp. 1849-1861
[53.]
American Diabetes Association.
Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 28 (2005), pp. S4-33
[54.]
Hypertension in Diabetes Study Group.
HDS 1: Prevalence of hypertension in newly presenting type diabetic patients and the association with risk factors for cardiovascular and diabetic complications.
J Hypertension, 11 (1993), pp. 309-317
[55.]
D.C. Simonson.
Etiology and prevalence of hypertension in diabetic patients.
Diabetes Care, 11 (1988), pp. 821-827
[56.]
Joint National Comittee on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the fifth repot of the Joint National Comittee on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC-V). Arch Intern Med. 1993;153: 154-83.
[57.]
J.AE. Manson, G.A. Colditz, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett, A.S. Krolewski, B. Rosner, et al.
A prospective study of maturityonset diabetes mellitus and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in women.
Arch Intern Med, 151 (1991), pp. 1141-1147
[58.]
J. Stamler, O. Vacaro, J.D. Neaton, D. Wentworth.
The multiple Risk factors Intervention Trial Research Group: Diabetes, other risk factors and 12 year cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Trial.
Diabetes Care, 16 (1993), pp. 434-444
[59.]
C.E. Mogensen.
Combined high blood pressure and glucose in type 2 diabetes: double jeopardy.
BMJ, 317 (1998), pp. 693-694
[60.]
J.D. Curb, S.L. Pressel, J.A. Cutler, P.J. Savage, W.B. Applegate, H. Black, et al.
Effect of diuretic-based antihypertensive treatment on cardiovascular disease risk in older diabetic patients with isolated systolic hypertension. Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program Cooperative Research Group.
JAMA, 276 (1996), pp. 1886-1892
[61.]
J. Tuomilehto, D. Rastenyte, W.H. Birkenhager, L. Thijs, R. Antikainen, C.J. Bulpitt, et al.
Effects of calcium-channel blockade in older patients with diabetes and systolic hypertension.Systolic Hypertension in Europe Trial Investigators.
N Engl J Med, 340 (1999), pp. 677-684
[62.]
L. Hansson, A. Zanchetti, S.G. Carruthers, B. Dahlof, D. Elmfeldt, S. Julius, et al.
Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomized trial. HOT Study Group.
Lancet, 351 (1998), pp. 1755-1762
[63.]
Heart outcomes prevention evaluation (HOPE) Study investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus. Results of the HOPE and MICROHOPE sub-study. Lancet. 2000;355:253-9.
[64.]
L. Hanson, L.H. Lindholm, L. Niskanen, J. Lanke, T. Hedner, A. Niklason, et al.
Effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor compared with conventional therapy in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension. The CAPPP Randomized Trial.
Lancet, 353 (1999), pp. 611-616
[65.]
P. Tatti, M. Pahor, R.P. Byington, P. Di Mauro, R. Guarisco, G. Strollo, et al.
Outcome results of the Fosinopril vs. Amlodipine Cardiovascular Events randomized trial (FACET) in patients with hypertension and NIDDM.
Diabetes Care, 21 (1998), pp. 597-603
[66.]
R.O. Estacio, B.W. Jeffers, W.R. Hiatt, S.L. Biggerstaff, N. Gifford, R.W. Schrier.
The effect of nisoldipine as compared with enalapril on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and Hypertension.
N Engl J Med, 338 (1998), pp. 645-652
[67.]
L.H. Lindholm, H. Ibsen, B. Dahlof, R.B. Devereux, G. Beevers, U. de Faire, et al.
The LIFE study group. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study(LIFE): A randomized trial against atenolol.
Lancet, 359 (2002), pp. 1004-1010
[68.]
B.M. Brenner, M.E. Cooper, D. Zeeuw, W.F. Keane, W.E. Mitch, H.H. Parving, et al.
Effects of Losartan on RENAAL and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy.
N Engl J Med, 342 (2001), pp. 861-869
[69.]
H.H. Parving, H. Lehnert, J. Brochner-Mortensen, R. Gomis, S. Andersen, P. Arner, et al.
For the Ibesartan patients with type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria study group.
N Engl Med, 345 (2001), pp. 870-878
[70.]
A.H. Barnett, S.C. Bain, P. Bouter, B. Karlberg, S. Madsbad, J. Jervell, et al.
Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus convertingenzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy.
N Engl J Med, 351 (2004), pp. 1952-1961
[71.]
S.F. Dinneen, H.C. Gerstein.
The association of microalbuminuria and mortality in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.A systematic overview of the literature.
Arch Intern Med, 157 (1997), pp. 1413-1418
[72.]
H. Miettinen, S.M. Haffner, S. Letho, T. Ronnemaa, K. Pyorala, M. Laakso, et al.
Proteinuria predicts stroke and other atherosclerotic vascular disease events in nondiabetic and non-insulin-dependent diabetic subjects.
Stroke, 27 (1996), pp. 2033-2039
[73.]
G.I. Papaioannou, R.L. Seip, N.J. Grey, D. Katten, A. Taylor, S.E. Inzucchi, et al.
Brachial artery reactivity in asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria (from the Detection of Ischemia in Asymptomatic Diabeticsbrachial artery reactivity study).
Am J Cardiol, 94 (2004), pp. 294-299
[74.]
C.T. Valmadrid, R. Klein, S.E. Moss, B.E. Kleine.
The risk of cardiovascular disease mortality associated with microalbuminuria and gross proteinuria in persons with older onset diabetes mellitus.
Arch Intern Med, 160 (2000), pp. 1093-1100
[75.]
H.C. Gerstein, J.F. Mann, Q. Yi, B. Zinman, S.F. Dinneen, Hoogwerf, HOPE Study investigators, et al.
Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and hart failure in diabetic and non diabetic individuals.
JAMA, 286 (2001), pp. 421-426
[76.]
D. De Zeeuw, G. Remuzzi, H.H. Parving, W.F. Keane, Z. Zhang, S. Shahinfar, et al.
Albuminuria, a therapeutic target for cardiovascular protection in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy.
Circulation, 110 (2004), pp. 921-927
[77.]
Antithrombotic Trialist's Collaboration.
Collaborative metaanalysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients.
BMJ, 324 (2002), pp. 71-86
[78.]
D.L. Bahtt, S.P. Marso, A.T. Hirsch, P.A. Ringleb, W. Hacke, E.J. Topol.
Amplified benefit of copidogrel versus aspirin in patients with diabetes mellitus.
Am J Cardiol, 90 (2002), pp. 625-628
[79.]
ETDRS investigators. Aspirin effects on mortality and morbidity in patients with diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 1992;268:1292-300.
[80.]
Final report on the aspirin component of ongoing Physicians’Health Study.
Steering Committee of the Physicians’ Health Study Research Group.
N Engl J Med, 321 (1989), pp. 129-135
[81.]
M. Sacco, F. Pellegrini, M.C. Roncaglioni, F. Avanzini, G. Tognoni, A. Nicolucci.
Primary prevention of cardiovascular events with low-doswe aspirin and vitamin E in type 2 diabetic patients: results of the Primary Prevention Project(PPP) trial.
Diabetes Care, 26 (2003), pp. 3264-3272
[82.]
C. Watala, J. Pluta, J. Golanski, M. Rozalski, M. Czyz, Z. Trojanowski, et al.
Increased protein glycation in diabetes mellitus is associated with decreased aspirin-mediated protein acetylation and reduced sensitivity of blood platelets to aspirin.
J Mol Med, 83 (2005), pp. 148-158
[83.]
J.M. Fernandez-Real, W. Ricart.
Insulin resistance and chronic cardiovascular inflammatory syndrome.
Endocr Rev, 24 (2003), pp. 278-301
[84.]
I. Shai, M.B. Schulze, J.E. Manson, K.M. Rexrode, M.J. Stampfer, C. Mantzoros, et al.
A prospective study of soluble tumor necrosis factor-alpha receptor II (sTNF-RII) and risk of coronary heart disease among women with type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 28 (2005), pp. 1376-1382
[85.]
P.M. Ridker, N. Rifai, M.J. Stampfer, C.H. Hennekens.
Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men.
Circulation, 101 (2000), pp. 1767-1772
[86.]
J.K. Pai, T. Pischon, J. Ma, J.E. Manson, S.E. Hankinson, K. Joshipura, et al.
Inflammatory markers and the risk of coronary heart disease in men and women.
N Engl J Med, 351 (2004), pp. 2599-2610
[87.]
C.M. Ballantyne, R.C. Hoogeveen, H. Bang, J. Coresh, A.R. Folsom, G. Heiss, et al.
Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2,high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and risk for incident coronary heart disease in middle-aged men and women in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study.
Circulation, 109 (2004), pp. 837-842
[88.]
P.M. Ridker, C.P. Cannon, D. Morrow, N. Rifai, L.M. Rose, C.H. Mc-Cabe, et al.
C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy.
N Engl J Med, 352 (2005), pp. 20-28
[89.]
J. Garcia, C. Guijarro.
Diagnóstico del riesgo cardiovascular asociado a la arteriosclerosis.
Medicina cardiovascular, aretrioclerosis, pp. 1497-1512
[90.]
J. Jimeno, M. Brunet, J. Franch.
Variabilidad en la estimación del riesgo coronario en la diabetes mellitus tipo 2.
Aten Primaria, 35 (2005), pp. 30-36
[91.]
K. Malmberg, S. Yusuf, H.C. Gerstein, J. Brown, F. Zhao, D. Hunt, et al.
Impact of diabetes on long-term prognosis in patients with unstable angina and non-Q-wave myocardial infarction:results of the OASIS (Organization to Assess Strategies for Ischemic Syndromes) Registry.
Circulation, 102 (2000), pp. 1014-1019
[92.]
S.M. Haffner, S. Lehto, T. Ronnemaa, K. Pyorala, M. Laakso.
Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjecs with and without prior myocardial infarction.
N Engl J Med, 339 (1998), pp. 229-348
[93.]
C.D. Lee, A.R. Folsom, J.S. Pankow, F.L. Brancati.
Cardiovascular events in diabetic and nondiabetic adults with or without history of myocardial infarction.
Circulation, 109 (2004), pp. 837-842
[94.]
O. Vaccaro, L.E. Eberly, J.D. Neaton, L. Yang, G. Riccardi, J. Stamler.
Impact of diabetes and previous myocardial infarction on long-term survival: 25-year mortality follow-up of primary screenees of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial.
Arch Intern Med, 164 (2004), pp. 1438-1443
[95.]
J.M. Evans, J. Wang, A.D. Morris.
Comparison of cardiovascular risk between patients with type 2 diabetes and those who had had a myocardial infarction: cross sectional and cohort studies.
BMJ, 324 (2002), pp. 939-944
[96.]
K. Kodama, S. Sakagashira, M. Hori.
Prognostic significance of diabetes mellitus in patients with acute myocardial infarction after recanalization.
Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 30 (1996), pp. 71-75
[97.]
P.T. Donnan, D.I. Boyle, J. Broomhall, K. Hunter, T.M. MacDonald, R.W. Newton, et al.
Prognosis following first acute myocardial infarction in Type 2 diabetes: a comparative population study.
Diabet Med, 19 (2002), pp. 448-455
[98.]
V. Mathew, B.J. Gersh, B.A. Williams, W.K. Laskey, J.T. Willerson, R.T. Tilbury, et al.
Outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention in the current era: a report from the Prevention of REStenosis with Tranilast and its Outcomes (PRESTO) trial.
Circulation, 109 (2004), pp. 476-480
[99.]
J.R. Timmer, J.P. Ottervanger, K. Thomas, J.C. Hoorntje, M.J. de Boer, H. Suryapranata, et al.
Long-term, cause-specific mortality after myocardial infarction in diabetes.
Eur Heart J, 25 (2004), pp. 926-931
[100.]
B. Janand-Delenne, B. Savin, G. Habib, M. Bory, P. Vague, V. Lassmann-Vague, et al.
Silent myocardial ischemia in patients with diabetes: who to screen.
Diabetes Care, 22 (1999), pp. 1396-1400
[101.]
T. Truelsen, M. Mahonen, H. Tolonen, K. Asplund, R. Bonita, D. Vanuzzo, et al.
Trends in stroke and coronary heart disease in the WHO MONICA Project.
Stroke, 34 (2003), pp. 1346-1352
[102.]
R. Cooper, J. Cutler, P. Desvigne-Nickens, S.P. Fortmann, L. Friedman, R. Havlik, et al.
Trends and disparities in coronary heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases in the United States: findings of the national conference on cardiovascular disease prevention.
Circulation, 102 (2000), pp. 3137-3147
[103.]
M.G. Hunink, L. Goldman, A.N. Tosteson, M.A. Mittleman, P.A. Goldman, L.W. Williams, et al.
The recent decline in mortality from coronary heart disease, 1980-1990. The effect of secular trends in risk factors and treatment.
JAMA, 277 (1997), pp. 535-542
[104.]
W.D. Rosamond, L.E. Chambless, A.R. Folsom, L.S. Cooper, D.F. Conwill, L. Clegg, et al.
Trends in the incidence of myocardial infarction and in mortality due to coronary heart disease,1987 to 1994.
N Engl J Med, 339 (1998), pp. 861-867
[105.]
J.A. Volmink, J.N. Newton, N.R. Hicks, P. Sleight, G.H. Fowler, H.A. Neil.
Coronary event and case fatality rates in an English population: results of the Oxford myocardial infarction incidence study. The Oxford Myocardial Infarction Incidence Study Group.
Heart, 80 (1998), pp. 40-44
[106.]
W.D. Rosamond, A.R. Folsom, L.E. Chambless, C.H. Wang.
Coronary heart disease trends in four United States communities.The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study 1987-1996.
Int J Epidemiol, 30 (2001), pp. S17-22
[107.]
P.G. McGovern, D.R. Jacobs Jr, E. Sahahar, D.K. Arnett, A.R. Folsom, H. Blackburn, et al.
Trends in acute coronary heart disease mortality, morbidity, and medical care from 1985 through 1997: the Minnesota heart survey.
Circulation, 104 (2001), pp. 19-24
[108.]
P. Pajunen, R. Paakkonen, A. Juolevi, H. Hamalainen, I. Heskimaki, T. Laatikainen, et al.
Trends in fatal and non-fatal coronary heart disease events in Finland during 1991-2001.
Scand Cardiovasc, 38 (2004), pp. 340-344
[109.]
B. Unal, J.A. Critchley, S. Capewell.
Explaining the decline in coronary heart disease mortality in England and Wales between 1981 and 2000.
Circulation, 109 (2004), pp. 1101-1107
[110.]
M. Peltonen, V. Lundberg, F. Huhtasaari, K. Asplund.
Marked improvement in survival after acute myocardial infarction in middle-aged men but not in women. The Northern Sweden MONICA study 1985-94.
J Intern Med, 247 (2000), pp. 579-587
[111.]
V. Salomaa, M. Ketonen, H. Koukkunen, P. Immonen-Raiha, T. Jerkkola, P. Karja-Koskenkari, et al.
Trends in coronary events in Finland during 1983-1997. The FINAMI study.
Eur Heart J, 24 (2003), pp. 311-319
[112.]
M.M. Ferrario, C. Fornari, L. Bolognesi, M.T. Gussoni, M. Benedetti, R. Sega, et al.
Recent time trends of myocardial infarction rates in northern Italy. Results from the MONICA and CAMUNI registries in Brianza: 1993-1994 versus 1997-1998.
Ital Heart J Suppl, 4 (2003), pp. 651-657
[113.]
H. Kesteloot, S. Sans, D. Kromhout.
Dynamics of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in Western and Eastern Europe between 1970 and 2000.
Eur Heart J, 27 (2006), pp. 107-113
[114.]
T. Laatikainen, J. Critchley, E. Vartiainen, V. Salomaa, M. Ketonen, S. Capewell.
Explaining the decline in coronary heart disease mortality in Finland between 1982 and 1997.
Am J Epidemiol, 162 (2005), pp. 764-773
[115.]
S. Capewell, C.E. Morrison, J.J. McMurray.
Contribution of modern cardiovascular treatment and risk factor changes to the decline in coronary heart disease mortality in Scotland between 1975 and 1994.
Heart, 81 (1999), pp. 380-386
[116.]
F. Collado-Mesa, H.M. Colhoun, L.K. Stevens, J. Boavida, J.B. Ferriss, B. Karamanos.
Prevalence and management of hypertension in Type 1 diabetes mellitus in Europe: the EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study.
Diabet Med, 16 (1999), pp. 41-49
[117.]
T.A. Pearson, I. Laurora, H. Chu, S. Kafonek.
The lipid treatment assessment project (L-TAP): a multicenter survey to evaluate the percentages of dyslipidemic patients receiving lipid-lowering therapy and achieving low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goals.
Arch Intern Med, 160 (2000), pp. 459-467
[118.]
R.L. Antikainene, V.A. Moltchanov, C. Chukwuna, K.A. Kuulasmaa, P.M. Marques-Vidal, S. Sans, et al.
Trends in the prevalence,awareness, treatment and control of hypertension: the WHO MONICA Project.
Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil, 13 (2006), pp. 13-29
[119.]
C.M. Berg, L. Lissner, N. Aires, G. Lappas, K. Toren.
Wilhelmsen.Trends in blood lipid levels, blood pressure, alcohol and smoking habits from 1985 to 2002: results from INTERGENE and GOT- MONICA.
Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil, 12 (2005), pp. 115-125
[120.]
Evans A, Tolonen H, Hense HW, Ferrario M, Sans S, Kuulasmaa K. Trends in coronary risk factors in the WHO MONICA project. 2001;30:35-40.
[121.]
H. Tunstall-Pedoe, D. Vanuzzo, M. Hobbs, M. Mahonen, Z. Cepaitis, K. Kuulasmaa, et al.
Estimation of contribution of changes in coronary care to improving survival, event rates, and coronary heart disease mortality across the WHO MONICA Project populations.
Lancet, 355 (2000), pp. 688-700
[122.]
R.F. Gillum, B.S. Gillum, C.K. Francis.
Coronary revascularization and cardiac catheterization in the United States: trends in racial differences.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 29 (1997), pp. 1557-1562
[123.]
K. Gu, C.C. Cowie, M.I. Harris.
Diabetes and decline in heart disease mortality in US adults.
JAMA, 281 (1999), pp. 1291-1297
[124.]
C.S. Fox, S. Coady, P.D. Sorlie, D. Levy, J.B. Meigs, R.B. DÁgostino, et al.
Trends in cardiovascular complications of diabetes.
JAMA, 292 (2004), pp. 2495-2499
[125.]
M. Kamalesh, U. Subramanian, A. Arina, S. Sawada, W. Tierney.
Similar decline in post-myocardial infarction mortality among subjects with and without diabetes.
Am J Med Sci, 329 (2005), pp. 228-233
[126.]
G.L. Booth, M.K. Kapral, K. Fung, J.V. Tu.
Recent trends in cardiovascular complications among men and women with and without diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 29 (2006), pp. 32-37
[127.]
A. Rautio, V. Lundberg, T. Messner, S. Nasic, B. Stegmayr, M. Eliasson.
Favourable trends in the incidence and outcome of myocardial infarction in nondiabetic, but not in diabetic,subjects: findings from the MONICA myocardial infarction registry in northern Sweden in 1989-2000.
J Intern Med, 258 (2005), pp. 369-377
[128.]
S. Gudbjornsdottir, J. Cederholm, P.M. Nilsson, B. Eliasson.
The National Diabetes Register in Sweden: an implementation of the St. Vincent Declaration for Quality Improvement in Diabetes Care.
Diabetes Care, 26 (2003), pp. 1270-1276
[129.]
B. Eliasson, J. Cederholm, P. Nilsson, S. Gudbornsdottir.
The gap between guidelines and reality: Type 2 diabetes in a National Diabetes Register 1996-2003.
Diabet Med, 22 (2005), pp. 1420-1426
[130.]
C.E. Koro, S.J. Bowlin, N. Bourgeois, D.O. Fedder.
Glycemic control from 1988 to 2000 among U.S. adults diagnosed with type 2 diabetes: a preliminary report.
Diabetes Care, 27 (2004), pp. 17-20
[131.]
P. Gaede, P. Vedel, N. Larsen, G.V. Jensen, H.H. Parving, O. Pedersen.
Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes.
N Engl J Med, 348 (2003), pp. 383-393
Copyright © 2006. Sociedad Española de Endocrinología y Nutrición