Información del artículo
Staphylococcus aureus resistente a meticilina (SARM) es el microorganismo grampositivo multirresistente de mayor prevalencia en las infecciones de la piel y los tejidos blandos. En este capítulo se comentan las alteraciones genéticas, los factores de virulencia y la epidemiología del SARM adquirido en la comunidad, que en la actualidad es la etiología más frecuente de las infecciones cutáneas supuradas en Estados Unidos y que ha hecho que en este país se proceda a replantear el tratamiento empírico idóneo de estas infecciones. Asimismo, se comentan la epidemiología y las manifestaciones cutáneas del SARM adquirido en el hospital. Se discute el papel de fármacos clásicos como la vancomicina, la teicoplanina y también el cotrimoxazol o la clindamicina en el tratamiento de las infecciones de la piel y los tejidos blandos, tanto comunitarias como las adquiridas en el hospital, y la aportación de los nuevos antibióticos: linezolid, daptomicina, tigeciclina, ceftobiprole y los nuevos glucopéptidos: telavancina y dalbavancina. Por último se realiza un breve comentario sobre otras medidas adyuvantes en el tratamiento de las formas graves de las infecciones de la piel y los tejidos blandos.
Palabras clave:
Infecciones cutáneas
Infecciones de piel y partes blandas
SARM
Infecciones grampositivas
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the most highly prevalent multiresistant Gram-positive microorganism in skin and soft tissue infections. The present article discusses the genetic alterations, virulence factors, and epidemiology of community-acquired MRSA, which is currently the most frequent cause of suppurative cutaneous lesions in the United States and has led to reconsideration of the most suitable empirical treatment of these infections. The epidemiology and cutaneous manifestations of hospital-acquired MRSA are also discussed. The role of classical drugs such as vancomycin and teicoplanin, as well as cotrimoxazole and clindamycin, in the treatment of both community- and hospital-acquired cutaneous and soft tissue infections and the contribution of the new antibiotics (linezolid, daptomycin, tigecycline, ceftobiprole) and the new glycopeptides (telavancin, dalbavancin) are discussed. Lastly, a brief commentary is provided on other adjuvant measures in the treatment of severe cutaneous and soft tissue infections.
Key words:
Cutaneous infections
Skin and soft tissue infections
MRSA
Gram-positive infections
El Texto completo está disponible en PDF
Bibliografía
[1.]
G.J. Moran, A. Krishnadasan, R.J. Gorwitz, G.E. Fosheim, L.K. McDougal, R.B. Carey, et al.
Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department.
N Engl J Med, 355 (2006), pp. 666-674
[2.]
N. Zetola, J.S. Francis, E.L. Nuermberger, W.R. Bishai.
Community-acquired meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an emerging threat.
Lancet Infect Dis, 5 (2005), pp. 275-286
[3.]
S. Harbarth, D. Pittet.
Meticcillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Clin Infect Dis, 5 (2005), pp. 653-663
[4.]
M.D. King, B.J. Humphrey, Y.F. Wang, E.V. Kourbatova, S.M. Ray, H.M. Blumberg.
Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as the predominant cause of skin and soft-tissue infections.
Ann Intern Med, 144 (2006), pp. 309-317
[5.]
T. Ito, X.X. Ma, F. Takeuchi, K. Okuma, H. Yuzawa, K. Hiramatsu.
Novel type V staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec driven by a novel cassette chromosome recombinase, ccrC.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 48 (2004), pp. 2637-2651
[6.]
P.D. Fey, B. Said-Salim, M.E. Rupp, S.H. Hinrichs, D.J. Boxrud, C.C. Davis, et al.
Comparative molecular analysis of community- or hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47 (2003), pp. 196-203
[7.]
K. Mongkolrattanothai, S. Boyle, T.V. Murphy, R.S. Daum.
Novel non-mecAcontaining staphylococcal chromosomal cassette composite island containing pbp4 and tagF genes in a commensal staphylococcal species: a possible reservoir for antibiotic resistance islands in Staphylococcus aureus.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 48 (2004), pp. 1823-1836
[8.]
L. Staali, H. Monteil, D.A. Colin.
The staphylococcal pore-forming leukotoxins open Ca2+ channels in the membrane of human polymorphonuclear neutrophils.
J Membr Biol, 162 (1998), pp. 209-216
[9.]
F. Laurent, H. Lelievre, M. Cornu, F. Vandenesch, G. Carret, J. Etienne, et al.
Fitness and competitive growth advantage of new gentamicin-susceptible MRSA clones spreading in French hospitals.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 47 (2001), pp. 277-283
[10.]
C. Stankovic, P.V. Majan.
Healty children with invasive community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections.
Pediatr Emerg Care, 22 (2006), pp. 361-363
[11.]
F. Coronado, J.A. Nicholas, B.J. Wallace, D.J. Kohlerschmidt, K. Musser, Schoonmaker-Bopp, et al.
Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections in a religious community.
Epidemiol Infect, 135 (2007), pp. 492-501
[12.]
D. Skiest, K. Brown, J. Hester, T. Moore, C. Crosby, H.R. Mussa, et al.
Community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an urban HIV clinic.
HIV Med, 7 (2006), pp. 361-368
[13.]
A.E. Aiello, F.D. Lowy, L.N. Wright, E.L. Larson.
Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among US prisoners and military personnel: review and recommendations for future studies.
Lancet Infect Dis, 6 (2006), pp. 335-341
[14.]
M. Gilbert, J. MacDonald, D. Gregson, J. Siushansian, K. Zhang, S. Elsayed, et al.
Outbreak in Alberta of community-acquired (USA300) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in people with a history of drug use, homelessness or incarceration.
CMAJ, 175 (2006), pp. 149-154
[15.]
R. Romano, D. Lu, P. Holtom.
Outbreak of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections among a collegiate football team.
J Athl Train, 41 (2006), pp. 141-145
[16.]
CDC.
Community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection among healthy newborns.
MMWR, 55 (2006), pp. 329-332
[17.]
CDC.
Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections among tattoo reciepients: Ohio, Kentucky and Vermont, 2004-2005.
MMWR, 55 (2006), pp. 677-679
[18.]
CDC.
Severe meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus community-acquired pneumonia associate with inflenza: Louisiana and Georgia, December 2006- January 2007.
MMWR, 56 (2007), pp. 325-329
[19.]
A.I. Hidron, E.V. Kourbatova, J.S. Halvosa, B.J. Terrell, L.K. McDougal, F.C. Tenover, et al.
Risk factors for colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in patients admitted to an urban hospital: emergence of community-associated MRSA nasal carriage.
Clin Infect Dis, 41 (2005), pp. 159-166
[20.]
C.D. Salgado, B.M. Farr, D.P. Calfee.
Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a meta-analysis of prevalence and risk factors.
Clin Infect Dis, 36 (2003), pp. 131-139
[21.]
A. Broseta, F. Chaves, P. Rojo, J.R. Otero.
Emergence of a single clone of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in southern Madrid children.
Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin, 24 (2006), pp. 31-35
[22.]
Villegas ML, Cortes C, del Val B, Civille R, Alonso_tarres C. Frecuencia de la leucocidina de Panton-Valentine en infecciones subcutáneas extrahospitalarias. XII Reunión de la SEIMC, Coruña 2007. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2007. En prensa.
[23.]
Espejo E, Boada N, Morera MA, SIMO M, Andres M, Pérez J, et al. Infecciones por Staphylococcus aureus resistente a la meticilina (SARM) de origen comunitario. XII Reunion de la SEIMC, Coruña 2007. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2007. En prensa.
[24.]
U. Seybold, E.V. Kourbatova, J.G. Johnson, S.J. Halvosa, Y.F. Wang, M.D. King, et al.
Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections.
Infect Dis, 42 (2006), pp. 647-656
[25.]
M.M. Dinges, P.M. Orwin, P.M. Schlivert.
Exotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus.
Clin Microbiol Rev, 13 (2000), pp. 16-34
[26.]
M. Bahrain, M. Vasiliades, M. Wolff, F. Younus.
Five cases of bacterial endocarditis after furunculosis and the ongoing saga of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections.
Scand J Infect Dis, 38 (2006), pp. 702-707
[27.]
V. Boussaud, A. Parrot, C. Mayaud, M. Wislez, M. Antoine, C. Picard, et al.
Life-threatening hemoptysis in adults with community-acquired pneumonia due to Panton-Valentine leukocidin-secreting Staphylococcus aureus.
Intensive Care Med, 29 (2003), pp. 1840-1843
[28.]
P.S. Pannaraj, K.G. Hulten, B.E. González, E.O. Mason Jr, S.L. Kaplan.
Infective pyomyositis and myositis in children in the era of community-acquired, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection.
Clin Infect Dis, 43 (2006), pp. 953-960
[29.]
U. Seybold, H. Blumberg.
reading the leaves or decipherin DNA microarrays: are certain methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones adapted to cause specific infections.
Clin Infect Dis, 44 (2007), pp. 502-505
[30.]
L.G. Miller, C. Quan, A. Shay, K. Mostafaie, K. Bharadwa, N. Tan, et al.
A prospective investigation of outcomes after hospital discharge for endemic, community-acquired methicillin-resistant and -susceptible Staphylococcus aureus skin infection.
Clin Infect Dis, 44 (2007), pp. 483-492
[31.]
H. Huang, N.M. Flynn, J.H. King, C. Monchaud, M. Morita, S.H. Cohen.
Comparisons of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and hospital-associated MSRA infections in Sacramento, California.
J Clin Microbiol, 44 (2006), pp. 2423-2427
[32.]
I. Tien.
Update on the management of skin, soft-tissue infections, and osteoarticular infections in children.
Curr Opin Pediatr, 18 (2006), pp. 254-259
[33.]
M.L. Grayson.
The treatment triangle for Staphylococcal infections.
N Engl J Med, 355 (2006), pp. 724-727
[34.]
R.H. Drew.
Emerging options for treatment of invasive, multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections.
Pharmacotherapy, 27 (2007), pp. 227-249
[35.]
E.V. Barnes 2nd, D.P. Dooley, M.J. Hepburn, S.E. Baum.
Outcomes of community-acquired, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, soft tissue infections treated with antibiotics other than vancomycin.
Mil Med, 171 (2006), pp. 504-507
[36.]
J.D. Szumowski, D.E. Cohen, F. Kanaya, K.H. Mayer.
Treatment and outcomes of infections by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at an ambulatory clinic.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 5 (2007), pp. 423-428
[37.]
L.G. Miller, C. Quan, A. Shay, K. Mostafaie, K. Bharadwa, N. Tan, et al.
A prospective investigation of outcomes after hospital discharge for endemic, community-acquired methicillin-resistant and -susceptible Staphylococcus aureus skin infection.
Clin Infect Dis, 44 (2007), pp. 483-492
[38.]
C. Pigrau.
Oxazolidinones and glycopeptides.
Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin, 21 (2003), pp. 157-164
[39.]
J. Weigelt, K. Itani, D. Stevens, W. Lau, M. Dryden, C. Knirsch, Linezolid CSSTI Study Group.
Linezolid versus vancomycin in treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 49 (2005), pp. 2260-2266
[40.]
B.P. Howden, P.G. Charles, P.D. Johnson, P.B. Ward, M.L. Grayson.
Improved outcomes with linezolid for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: better drug or reduced vancomycin susceptibility?.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 49 (2005), pp. 4816
[41.]
A.C. Kalil, S. Puumala, J. Stoner.
Is linezolid superior to vancomycin for complicated skin and soft tissue infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus?.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50 (2006), pp. 1910
[42.]
J. Weigelt, H.M. Kaafarani, K.M. Itani, R.N. Swanson.
Linezolid eradicates MRSA better than vancomycin from surgical-site infections.
Am J Surg, 188 (2004), pp. 760-766
[43.]
G.L. Plosker, D.P. Figgitt.
Linezolid: a pharmacoeconomic review of its use in serious gram-positive infections.
Pharmacoeconomics, 23 (2005), pp. 945-964
[44.]
B.A. Lipsky, K. Itani, C. Norden, Linezolid Diabetic Foot Infections Study Group.
Treating foot infections in diabetic patients: a randomized, multicenter, open-label trial of linezolid versus ampicillin-sulbactam/amoxicillin-clavulanate.
Clin Infect Dis, 38 (2004), pp. 17-24
[45.]
A. Herruzo, C. Pigrau, D. Rodriguez, B. Almiorante, M. Villar, A. Pahissa, et al.
Effectiveness and tolerability of prolonged linezolid therapy for chronic osteomyelitis.
Corfu: 26th Annual Meeting European Bone and Joint Infection Society,
[46.]
A.F. Shorr, M.J. Kunkel, M. Kollef.
Linezolid versus vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: pooled analysis of randomized studies.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 56 (2005), pp. 923-929
[47.]
Lipopéptidos: una nueva clase de antibióticos para el tratamiento de las infecciones por microorganismos grampositivos.
Monografía.
Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin, 5 (2006), pp. 1-71
[48.]
R.D. Arbeit, D. Maki, F.P. Tally, E. Campanaro, B.I. Eisenstein, Daptomycin 98-01 and 99-01 Investigators.
The safety and efficacy of daptomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections.
Clin Infect Dis, 38 (2004), pp. 1673-1681
[49.]
B.A. Lipsky, U. Stoutenburgh.
Daptomycin for treating infected diabetic foot ulcers: evidence from a randomized, controlled trial comparing daptomy-cin with vancomycin or semi-synthetic penicillins for complicated skin and skin-structure infections.
Antimicrob Chemother, 55 (2005), pp. 240-245
[50.]
V.G. Fowler Jr, H.W. Boucher, G.R. Corey, E. Abrutyn, A.W. Karchmer, M.E. Rupp, S. aureus Endocarditis and Bacteremia Study Group, et al.
Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus.
N Engl J Med, 355 (2006), pp. 653-665
[51.]
E.J. Ellis-Grosse, T. Babinchak, N. Dartois, G. Rose, E. Loh, Tigecycline 300 cSSSI Study Group; Tigecycline 305 cSSSI Study Group.
The efficacy and safety of tigecycline in the treatment of skin and skin-structure infections: results of 2 double-blind phase 3 comparison studies with vancomycin-aztreonam.
Clin Infect Dis, 41 (2005), pp. S341-S353
[52.]
M.E. Stryjewski, W.D. O’Riordan, W.K. Lau, F.D. Pien, L.M. Dunbar, M. Vallee, FAST Investigator Group, et al.
Telavancin versus standard therapy for treatment of complicated skin and soft-tissue infections due to gram-positive bacteria.
Clin Infect Dis, 40 (2005), pp. 1601-1607
[53.]
M.E. Stryjewski, V.H. Chu, W.D. O’Riordan, B.L. Warren, L.M. Dunbar, D.M. Young, FAST 2 Investigator Group, et al.
Telavancin versus standard therapy for treatment of complicated skin and skin structure infections caused by gram-positive bacteria: FAST 2 study.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50 (2006), pp. 862-867
[54.]
L.E. Jauregui, S. Babazadeh, E. Seltzer, L. Goldberg, D. Krievins, M. Frederick, et al.
Randomized, double-blind comparison of once-weekly dalbavancin versus twice-daily linezolid therapy for the treatment of complicated skin and skin structure infections.
Clin Infect Dis, 41 (2005), pp. 1407-1415
[55.]
Noel GJ, Strauss RS, Pypstra R; 00154 study group. Succesful treatment of complicated skin infections due to staphylococci, including methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) with ceftobiprole. Abstract L1212. San Francisco: 46 ICAAC; 2006. p. 374.
[56.]
D.A. Anaya, E.P. Dellinger.
Necrotizing soft-tissue infection: diagnosis and management.
Clin Infect Dis, 44 (2007), pp. 705-710
[57.]
M. Jevons.
Celbernin-resistant staphylococci.
BMJ, i (1961), pp. 308-311
[58.]
EARSS annual report 2001. Bilthoven: European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (EARSS); 2002.
[59.]
A.C. Fluit, C.L. Wielders, J. Verhoef, F.J. Schmitz.
Epidemiology and susceptibility of 3,051 Staphylococcus aureus isolates from 25 university hospitals participating in the European SENTRY study.
J Clin Microbiol, 39 (2001), pp. 3727-3732
[60.]
D.J. Diekema, M.A. Pfaller, F.J. Schmitz, J. Smayevsky, T. Bell, R.N. Jones, SENTRY Participants Group, et al.
Survey of infections due to Staphylococcus species: frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates collected in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe, and the Western Pacific region for the SENTRYAntimicrobial Surveillance Program, 1997–1999.
Clin Infect Dis, 32 (2001), pp. S114-S132
[61.]
E. Cercenado, C. Sanchez-Carrillo, L. Alcala, E. Bouza.
Current status of resistance of Staphylococcus in Spain. 4th National Study (1996). Work Group on the Study of Staphylococcus (in Spanish).
Rev Clin Esp, 197 (1997), pp. 12-18
[62.]
E.P. Trallero, J.G. Arenzana, A.A. Castaneda, L.P. Grisolia.
Unusual multiresistant Staphylococcus aureus in a newborn nursery.
Am J Dis Child, 135 (1981), pp. 689-692
[63.]
O. Cuevas, E. Cercenado, A. Vindel, J. Guinea, M. Sánchez-Conde, M. Sánchez-Somolinos, et al.
Evolution of the antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus spp. In Spain: Five Nationwide Prevalence Studies, 1986 to 2002.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 48 (2004), pp. 4240-4245
[64.]
O. Del Valle, P. Trincado, M.T. Martin, E. Gomez, A. Cano, A. Vindel.
The prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus phagotype 95 in the Hospitales Valld’Hebron of Barcelona (in Spanish).
Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin, 17 (1999), pp. 498-505
[65.]
E.M. Graffunder, R.A. Venezia.
Risk factors associated with nosocomial methicillin –resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection including previous use of antimicrobials.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 49 (2002), pp. 999-1005
[66.]
N. Safdar, D.G. Maki.
The commonality of risk factors for nosocomial colonization and infection with antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus, gram-negative bacilli, Clostridium difficile, and Candida.
Ann Intern Med, 136 (2002), pp. 834-844
[67.]
O. Cuevas, E. Cercenado, E. Bouza, C. Castellares, P. Trincado, R. Cabrera, et al.
Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Spain: a multicentre prevalence study (2002).
Clin Microbiol Infect, 13 (2007), pp. 250-256
[68.]
M.E. Jones, F.J. Schmitz, A.C. Fluit, J. Acar, R. Gupta, J. Verhoef, The SENTRY participants group.
Frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial pathogens associated with skin and soft tissue infections during 1997 from an international surveillance programme.
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 18 (1999), pp. 403-408
[69.]
M.N. Swartz.
Cellulitis.
N Engl J Med, 350 (2004), pp. 904-912
[70.]
M.J. DiNubile, B.A. Lipsky.
Complicated infections of skin and skin structures: when the infection is more than skin deep.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 53 (2004), pp. ii37-ii50
[71.]
D.C. Vinh, J.M. Embil.
Rapidly progressive soft tissue infections.
Lancet Infect Dis, 5 (2005), pp. 501-513
[72.]
E.M. Graffunder, R.A. Venezia.
Risk factors associated with nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection including previous use of antimicrobials.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 49 (2002), pp. 999-1005
[73.]
E.A. Eady, J.H. Cove.
Staphylococcal resistance revisited: community- adquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, an emerging problem for the management of skin and soft tissue infections.
Curr Opin Infect Dis, 16 (2003), pp. 103-124
[74.]
L.J. Eron, B.A. Lipsky, D.E. Low, D. Nathwani, A.D. Tice, G.A. Volturo.
Managing skin and soft tissue infections: expert panel recommendations on key decision points.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 52 (2003), pp. i13-i17
[75.]
P.A. Moise-Broder, G. Sakoulas, G.M. Eliopoulos, J.J. Schentag, A. Forrest, R.C. Moellering Jr.
Accessory gene regulator group II polymorphism in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is predictive of failure of vancomycin therapy.
Clin Infect Dis, 38 (2004), pp. 1700-1705
[76.]
M.E. Stryjewski, V.H. Chu, W.D. O’Riordan, B.L. Warren, L.M. Dunbar, D.M. Young, FAST 2 Investigator Group, et al.
Telavancin versus standard therapy for treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by grampositive bacteria: FAST 2 study.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50 (2006), pp. 862-867
[77.]
H.A. Kirst, D.G. Thompson, T.I. Nicas.
Historical yearly usage of vancomycin.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 42 (1998), pp. 1303-1304
[78.]
J.F. Mohr, B.E. Murray.
Point: vancomycin is not obsolete for the treatment of infection caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Clin Infect Dis, 44 (2007), pp. 1536-1542
[79.]
K. Hiramatsu, H. Hanaki, T. Ino, K. Yabuta, T. Oguri, F.C. Tenover.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 40 (1997), pp. 135-136
[80.]
K. Sieradzki, R.B. Roberts, S.W. Haber, A. Tomasz.
The development of vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection.
N Engl J Med, 340 (1999), pp. 517-523
[81.]
S.K. Fridkin.
Vancomycin-intermediate and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus: what the infectious disease specialist needs to know.
Clin Infect Dis, 32 (2001), pp. 108-115
[82.]
F.C. Tenover, J.W. Biddle, M.V. Lancaster.
Increasing resistance to vancomycin and other glycopeptides in Staphylococcus aureus.
Emerg Infect Dis, 7 (2001), pp. 327-332
[83.]
K. Hiramatsu, N. Aritaka, H. Hanaki, S. Kawasaki, Y. Hosoda, S. Hori, et al.
Disemination in Japanese hospitals of strains of Staphylococcus aureus heterogeneously resistant to vancomycin.
Lancet, 350 (1997), pp. 1670-1673
[84.]
C. Liu, H.F. Chambers.
Staphylococcus aureus with heterogeneous resistance to vancomycin: epidemiology, clinical significance, and critical assessment of diagnostic methods.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47 (2003), pp. 3040-3045
[85.]
J. Ariza, M. Pujol, J. Cabo, C. Peña, N. Fernández, J. Liñares, et al.
Vancomycin in surgical infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with heterogeneous resistance to vancomycin.
Lancet, 353 (1999), pp. 1587-1588
[86.]
D.M. Sievert, M.L. Boulton, G. Stolman, D. Johnson, M.G. Stobiersky, F.P. Downes, et al.
Staphylococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin: United States, 2002.
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 51 (2002), pp. 565-567
[87.]
S. Chang, D.M. Sievert, J.C. Hageman, M.L. Boulton, F.C. Tenover, F.P. Downes, Vancomycin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Investigative Team, et al.
Infection with vancomycinresistant Staphylococcus aureus containing the vanA resistance gene.
N Engl J Med, 348 (2003), pp. 1342-1347
[88.]
G. Sakoulas, P.A. Moise-Broder, J. Schentag, A. Forrest, R.C. Moellering Jr, G.M. Eliopoulos.
Relationship of MIC and bactericidal activity to efficacy of vancomycin for treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia.
J Clin Microbiol, 42 (2004), pp. 2398-2402
[89.]
P.A. Moise-Broder, G. Sakoulas, G.M. Eliopoulos, J.J. Schentag, A. Forrest, R.C. Moellering Jr.
Accessory gene regulator group II polymorphism in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is predictive of failure of vancomycin therapy.
Clin Infect Dis, 38 (2004), pp. 1700-1705
[90.]
L.K. Hidayat, D.I. Hsu, R. Quist, K.A. Shriner, A. Wong-Beringer.
Highdose vancomycin therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: efficacy and toxicity.
Arch Intern Med, 166 (2006), pp. 2138-2144
[91.]
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing; seventeenth informational supplement. Standard M100-S17. Wayne: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2007.
[92.]
M.J. Rybak.
The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of vancomycin.
Clin Infect Dis, 42 (2006), pp. S35-S39
[93.]
P.A. Moise-Broder, A. Forrest, M.C. Birmingham, J.J. Schentag.
Pharmacodynamics of vancomycin and other antimicrobials in patients with Staphylococcus aureus lower respiratory tract infections.
Clin Pharmacokinet, 43 (2004), pp. 925-942
[94.]
M.N. Jeffres, W. Isakow, J.A. Doherty, P.S. McKinnon, D.J. Ritchie, S.T. Micek, et al.
Predictors of mortality for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus health-care-associated pneumonia: specific evaluation of vancomycin pharmacokinetic indices.
Chest, 130 (2006), pp. 947-955
[95.]
European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Antimicrobial wild type distributions of microorganisms [accedido 1 Mar 2007]. Disponible en: http://217.70.33.99/Eucast2/
[96.]
M. Del Mar Fernandez de Gatta Garcia, N. Revilla, M.V. Calvo, A. Dominquez-Gil, A. Sanchez Navarro.
Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis of vancomycin in ICU patients.
Intensive Care Med, 33 (2006), pp. 279-285
[97.]
US Food and Drug Administration, Anti-Infective Drugs Advisory Committee. Briefing information: Cubist Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Cubicin (daptomycin for injection) briefing material. 6 March 2006 [accedido 30 Abr 2007]. Disponible en: http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/nda/2003/21-572_Cubicin.htm.
[98.]
M.N. Jeffres, S.T. Micek, W. Isakow, et al.
Increased incidence of nephrotoxicity with higher vancomycin serum trough concentrations [abstract K-789].
Program and abstracts of the 46th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (San Francisco), pp. 327
[99.]
N. Markowitz, E.L. Quinn, L.D. Saravolatz.
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with vancomycin for the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection.
Ann Intern Med, 117 (1992), pp. 390-398
[100.]
D.L. Stevens, A.L. Bisno, H.F. Chambers, E.D. Everett, P. Dellinger, E.J.C. Goldstein, et al.
Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections.
Clin Infect Dis, 41 (2005), pp. 1373-1406
[101.]
C.G. Gemmell, D.I. Edwards, A.P. Fraise, F.K. Gould, G.L. Ridgway, R.E. Warren.
Guidelines for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the UK.
J Antimicrob Chemother, 57 (2006), pp. 589-608
[102.]
Documento de consenso sobre el tratamiento antimicrobiano de las infecciones en el pie del diabético. Rev Esp Quimioterap. 2007;20:77-92.
[103.]
J.L. Faoagali, M.L. Thong, D. Grant.
Ten years’ experience with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a large Australian hospital.
J Hosp Infect, 20 (1993), pp. 113-119
[104.]
D.H. Wilson.
Clindamycin in the treatment of soft tissue infections: a review of 15 019 patients.
Br J Surg, 67 (1980), pp. 93-96
[105.]
W. Schumer, R.L. Nicols, B. Miller, E.T. Samet, G.O. McDonald.
Clindamycin in the treatment of soft-tissue infections.
Arch Surg, 106 (1973), pp. 578-581
[106.]
J.L. Le Frock, R.A. Prince, A.S. Klainer, et al.
Parenteral clindamycin in the treatment of aerobic, anaerobic and mixed aerobic-anaerobic infections.
Curr Ther Res, 212 (1977), pp. 289-314
[107.]
M.S. Klemper, B. Styrt.
Prevention of recurrent staphylococcal skin infections with low-dose oral clindamycin therapy.
JAMA, 260 (1988), pp. 2682-2685
[108.]
Guía de tratamiento de las infecciones de piel y tejidos blandos. Rev Esp Quimioterap. 2006;19:378-94.
[109.]
D.L. Stevens, B.M. Laine, J.E. Mitten.
Comparision of single and combination antimicrobial agents for prevention of experimental gas gangrene caused by Clostridium perfringens.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 31 (1987), pp. 312-316
Copyright © 2008. Elsevier España S.L.. Todos los derechos reservados
