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Intravenous lidocaine infusion
Perfusión de lidocaína intravenosa
G. Sotoa,?
Corresponding author
dr.germansoto@gmail.com

Corresponding author.
, M. Naranjo Gonzálezb, F. Caleroa
a Médico Anestesiólogo, Hospital Escuela Eva Perón, Granadero Baigorria, Argentina
b Médica Anestesióloga, Clínica de Mérida, Mérida, Mexico
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Postoperative pain &#40;POP&#41; is a nociceptive stimulus produced by surgery-induced tissue damage&#44; and results in emotional and cognitive experiences&#46; Good pain management reduces morbidity&#44; improves surgical outcomes&#44; and reduces hospital costs&#46; However&#44; estimates suggest that more than 50&#37; of patients undergoing surgical procedures experience moderate to severe pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Persistence of the painful stimulus can even change the plasticity of the nervous system&#44; leading to chronic pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Inter-individual differences in pain thresholds and the use of inappropriate drugs are among the causes of POP&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although opioids are frequently used in pain therapy&#44; they can cause adverse effects&#44; such as respiratory depression&#44; postoperative nausea and vomiting&#44; ileus&#44; urinary retention&#44; hyperalgesia and immune changes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Intravenous &#40;iv&#41; perfusion of lidocaine&#44; a drug whose analgesic&#44; antihyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory properties modulate the inflammatory response produced by surgical stress&#44; is an alternative to opioids in pain management&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Some studies have shown that lidocaine decreases POP and the need for opioids and volatile agents&#44; and rapidly restores intestinal function&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> The antihyperalgesic action of lidocaine reduces allodynia by acting on spinal cord neurons&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0280"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> The anti-inflammatory action of the drug&#44; which inhibits cytokine release and polymorphonuclear activation&#44; has been demonstrated <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> The aim of this review is to describe the pharmacology of lidocaine&#44; its indications for use in anaesthesia practice&#44; and its effect on new fields of study&#44; including chronic POP&#44; postoperative cognitive dysfunction &#40;PCD&#41; and cancer recurrence&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Mechanisms of action</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Lidocaine is an amide-type local anaesthetic that acts by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels &#40;VGSC&#41; in neuronal tissues&#44; thus interrupting synaptic transmission&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> VGSCs are composed of an a subunit &#40;Nav1&#46;5&#44; 260<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>kDa&#41; and 1 or more &#223; subunits &#40;Nav&#223;1&#46;1&#44; Nav&#223;1&#46;1 a&#44; Nav&#223;3&#46;1&#59; 33&#8211;36<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>kDa&#41;&#46; The a subunit is an integral heteromultimeric protein complex consisting of 4 homologous domains &#40;D1&#8211;D4&#41;&#44; each of which contains 6 a-helix transmembrane segments &#40;S1&#8211;S6&#41;&#46; The C- and N-terminus ends and P loops that bind the domains are intracytoplasmic&#46; The S5&#8211;S6 segments and the P loop of each domain form the channel pore that penetrates the membrane&#46; In mammals&#44; VGSCs have 9 different a unit isotypes &#40;Nav1&#46;1 to 1&#46;9&#41;&#44; some of which are associated with neuropathic pain &#40;Nav1&#46;3&#44; 1&#46;7&#44; 1&#46;8 and 1&#46;9&#41; and others with inflammatory pain &#40;Nav1&#46;7&#44; 1&#46;8 and 1&#46;9&#41;&#46; Lidocaine passes through the neuron membrane and is converted to its non-ionised form by the effect of pH&#46; It binds to the S6 portion of domain 4 of the a subunit inside the sodium channel&#46; The affinity of lidocaine for VGSCs varies according to the status of the channel&#44; being high when the channel is open and low when it is closed&#46; Therefore&#44; the greater the neural discharge&#44; the greater the number of ionised lidocaine molecules entering the site of action&#44; thus increasing the analgesic capacity of the drug&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> The analgesic effect of intravenous administration is the result of increased acetylcholine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid&#44; which cause downward inhibition&#44; inhibition of glycine receptors&#44; and increase the release of endogenous opioids&#46; When lidocaine reaches the spinal cord&#44; it reduces the post-synaptic depolarisation mediated by N-methyl-<span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">d</span>-aspartate and neurokinin receptors&#44; thus modifying the pain response&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> N-methyl-<span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">d</span>-aspartate blockade inhibits protein kinase C&#44; thus reducing hyperalgesia and postoperative opioid tolerance&#46; In animal models&#44; lidocaine acts during the early stages of systemic inflammatory response&#44; modulating the marginalisation&#44; adherence and diapedesis of polymorphonuclear cells towards the site of the lesion&#44; thus inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species and the release of histamine&#46; This immunomodulatory effect of the drug is achieved by blocking G protein-coupled receptors&#44; since polymorphonuclear cells do not contain VGSCs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0305"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> Through G protein-coupled receptors&#44; lidocaine inhibits inflammatory processes&#44; such as the sensitisation and lysosomal degradation of neutrophils&#44; the production of reactive oxygen species&#44; and the secretion of cytokines in both macrophages and glial cells&#46; On the other hand&#44; it can also inhibit leukocyte adhesion and migration through the endothelium by inhibiting intercellular adhesion molecules&#44; altering the cytoskeleton&#44; or attenuating the release of chemotactic factors&#46; Lidocaine blocks the release of interleukin &#40;IL&#41; 1&#44; IL-1&#223;&#44; tumour necrosis factora and IL-8 in polymorphonuclear cells&#46; It also decreases circulating IL-6 and phospholipase A2 levels&#44; both of which are involved in the disruption of the blood-brain barrier&#44; inflammation and brain damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0310"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Lidocaine also inhibits the production of thromboxane B2 by inhibiting platelet aggregation&#44; which reduces the risk of venous thrombosis&#46; Finally&#44; lidocaine has been shown to exhibit antioxidant properties by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species due to its interaction with phospholipid membranes and interference with mitochondrial radical formation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Pharmacokinetics and toxicity</span><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Standard dosage is an initial bolus of 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> followed by continuous perfusion of 0&#46;5&#8211;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#46; The most widely used and best described dosage is continuous perfusion of 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> When administered intravenously&#44; lidocaine is distributed in highly vascularised organs such as the kidney&#44; brain and heart&#44; and then to less vascularised organs&#46; Around 40&#37; of the dose is extracted temporarily by the lung&#44; where pH is lower than in plasma&#46; This reduces the risk of accidental toxicity in the early stages of iv administration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> When lidocaine is administered in a 1 mg&#47;kg bolus followed by continuous infusion of 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#44; plasma concentrations of approximately 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#181;g&#47;ml<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> are obtained&#46; Plasma concentrations of more than 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#181;g&#47;ml<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> are considered toxic&#46; These concentrations are sufficient to attenuate the sympathetic response and reduce pain and the need for inhalational agents and opioids&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> In pharmacokinetic simulations&#44; continuous perfusion with no initial bolus takes between 4 and 8 h to reach equilibrium&#44; with a context-sensitive half-life of 20&#8211;40 min when the infusion is completed&#46; Lidocaine is metabolised in the liver by the P-450 system&#46; The liver&#39;s monoethyl-glycine-xylidide and glycine-xylidide metabolites are less effective at blocking the sodium channel&#46; Monoethyl-glycine-xylidide has the same potential for causing antiarrhythmia and convulsions as lidocaine&#59; however&#44; it is rapidly metabolised to glycine-xylidide&#46; Glycine-xylidide is less active than lidocaine and its metabolite is metabolised and excreted in urine&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Adverse effects and toxicity are extremely rare in controlled infusions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> Circulating plasma concentrations of lidocaine are affected by dose and rate of perfusion&#44; acid-base status&#44; hypoalbuminemia&#44; and liver and kidney function&#46; Toxicity manifests with plasma concentrations of over 5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#181;g&#47;ml<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#44; and affects the CNS and the cardiovascular system&#46; In awake patients&#44; toxicity manifests as numbness of the tongue&#44; metallic taste&#44; dizziness and tinnitus&#46; Convulsions progressing to coma appear with concentrations greater than 10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#181;g&#47;ml<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#46; Cardiovascular symptoms in awake patients are rare due to the lower cardiotoxicity of lidocaine compared to bupivacaine&#44; and include QRS and PR interval prolongation&#44; bradycardia and hypotension&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> Toxicity will require supportive measures&#44; including oxygenation&#44; hydration&#44; vasopressors&#44; inotropics&#44; antiarrhythmics and anticonvulsants&#46; If the patient does not respond to supportive measures&#44; lipid infusion should be considered&#44; starting at a dose of 1&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> at 20&#37; and repeating this every 3&#8211;5 min up to a total dose of 8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Clinical application</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Randomised studies&#44; meta-analyses and systematic reviews support the use of iv lidocaine and its clinical application&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> Intravenous lidocaine infusion &#40;bolus of 1&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> followed by 1&#46;5&#8211;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#41; is indicated in videolaparoscopic abdominal surgery&#44; such as colectomy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> cholecystectomy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> gastrectomy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0345"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> appendectomy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> and bariatric surgery&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> In these procedures&#44; lidocaine has been shown to reduce pain measured on a visual analogue scale&#44; reduce opioid requirements and the incidence of ileus within the first 24 postoperative hours&#46; In bariatric surgery&#44; obese patients and those with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome are the group most likely to develop respiratory depression&#44; so iv lidocaine is indicated in these cases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a> In open abdominal surgery<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> and colorectal surgery&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;25</span></a> lidocaine exhibits the same properties as in videolaparoscopic surgery&#44; and shortens hospital stay&#46; Intravenous lidocaine can be used in fast-track surgery protocols&#44; specifically&#44; the enhanced recovery after surgery &#40;ERAS&#41; protocol&#44; and also in patients in whom neuraxial blockade is contraindicated&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> Lidocaine can be continued for 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h after surgery at a reduced dose of 1&#46;33<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> Computer simulations based on 3-compartment models support its use during prolonged infusion&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Intravenous lidocaine perfusion &#40;bolus of 1&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> followed by 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#41; is indicated in urological procedures&#44; such a as laparoscopic nephrectomy<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> and laparoscopic nephrectomy prostatectomy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> and also in chest surgery&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> where it has been shown to alleviate pain measured on a visual analogue scale and reduce the need for opioids&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In different types of day surgery procedures&#44; such general surgery&#44; endocrine&#44; breast&#44; gynaecological&#44; urological&#44; plastic and otorhinolaryngology surgery&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0395"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;30</span></a> iv lidocaine was found to alleviate pain and reduce opioid requirements&#44; but had no effect on the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting&#46; Evidence suggests that good analgesia and fewer opioid requirements can shorten hospital stay&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In radical mastectomy to treat breast cancer&#44; iv lidocaine reduced the area of hyperalgesia when compared to placebo&#44; but did not improve pain management&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a></p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There is no evidence that lidocaine improves pain management in radical hysterectomy&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0410"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> cosmetic breast surgery&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0415"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> or hip replacement&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0420"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> The failure of pain management in these procedures could be related to differences in dosage and perfusion times&#44; and also to differences in the variables analysed&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">New fields of research</span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Chronic postoperative pain</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The chronification of acute postoperative pain is a poorly understood&#44; multifactorial process that has sparked growing interest in recent years&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a> Many patients experience chronic pain after certain surgical procedures&#44; such as thoracotomy&#44; mastectomy or limb amputation&#46; Recent studies have shown that opioid-induced hyperalgesia &#40;OIH&#41; can progress to chronic POP through complex central and&#47;or peripheral mechanisms that alter the sensitisation of the pain stimulus&#46; The opioids identified as potentially causing OIH in animal models and human volunteers are remifentanil&#44; fentanyl&#44; morphine&#44; and diamorphine&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> The main factor associated with this phenomenon is the cumulative dose administered&#44; particularly the effect site concentration&#46; Similarly&#44; Salengros et al&#46; found that the area of allodynia around the wound measured using von Frey filaments at 24&#44; 48 and 72 h was greater in the high dose remifentanil group &#40;0&#46;14&#8211;0&#46;26<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#181;g&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;min<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#41;&#46; Finally&#44; in the high-dose remifentanil group the number of patients with chronic pain assessed using the DN4 questionnaire for neuropathic pain was significantly higher at 1&#44; 3&#44; 6 and 9 months after surgery&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> Grigoras et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0405"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a>&#44; meanwhile&#44; showed that iv lidocaine perfusion reduced the area of hyperalgesia compared with placebo in patients undergoing mastectomy for breast cancer&#46; In another study&#44; Terkawi et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> found that iv lidocaine perfusion reduced the incidence of chronic postmastectomy pain &#40;12&#37;&#41; compared with placebo &#40;30&#37;&#41;&#44; showing a preventive effect on the development of hyperalgesia&#46; Some authors have speculated that the use of pharmacological strategies aimed at reducing the intensity of POP and opioid requirements could prevent progression to OIH&#46; Opioid-sparing anaesthesia and opioid-free anaesthesia techniques are designed to avoid or minimise the development of OIH while blocking nociceptive stimuli&#46; Backan et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0445"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> using opioid-free anaesthesia with propofol&#44; dexmedetomidine and lidocaine&#44; achieved good POP control and lower analgesic and antiemetic consumption&#46; However&#44; post-anaesthesia recovery was slower in this group&#44; and new&#44; well-designed prospective studies are needed to support the use of this anaesthetic technique&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Postoperative cognitive dysfunction</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Postoperative cognitive dysfunction &#40;PCD&#41; is defined as moderate to severe impairment of intellectual capacity caused by poorly resolved neuroinflammatory response&#46; Growing evidence from experimental <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> models&#44; cell cultures&#44; and animal models point to an interaction between surgery and anaesthesia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> Exposure to inhalational agents can activate lytic enzymes called caspases&#44; increase the synthesis and accumulation of &#223;-amyloid protein&#44; and induce hyperphosphorylation of tau proteins&#44; all of which are cellular responses consistent with the neuropathogenesis of Alzheimer&#39;s disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> There is widespread consensus on the need to develop strategies that avoid or limit possible neuronal damage&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> Perfusion of iv lidocaine reduces requirements of volatile agents such as sevoflurane<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0335"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;43</span></a> and desflurane&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> and thus reduces the time- and dose-dependent effects of these drugs&#46; A study in laparoscopic cholecystectomy found that administration of iv lidocaine &#40;bolus of 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span> followed by 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#47;h<span class="elsevierStyleSup">-1</span>&#41; reduced by 19&#37; the inspired fraction of sevoflurane needed to maintain adequate haemodynamic stability&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0465"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> In coronary bypass surgery&#44; Wang et al&#46; showed that the use of iv lidocaine reduced incidence of PCD compared with placebo &#40;18&#46;6&#37; vs 40&#37;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;028&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> In addition to avoiding exposure to volatile agents&#44; animal studies in lidocaine have shown that the drug has neuroprotective properties&#46; Perfusion of lidocaine reduced the incidence of cognitive dysfunction in rat models exposed to isoflurane&#46; Pain is also a risk factor for the development of PCD&#46; Some authors hypothesise that iv lidocaine infusions can reduce the risk of PCD&#44; possibly due to its neuroprotective effects&#44; opioid-sparing properties&#44; and impact on pain reduction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0475"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Cancer recurrence</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Recent evidence has shown that lidocaine and other local anaesthetics may decrease the progression and recurrence of cancer through its indirect and direct effect on tumour cells&#46; The indirect effects stem from inhibition of the neuroendocrine stress response to surgery and to a reduction in the requirements of volatile anaesthetics and opioids&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;46</span></a> The direct effects are mediated by specific molecular actions on cancer cells&#46; Tumour cells are known to express VGSC in a wide variety of carcinomas&#44; including breast&#44; cervix&#44; colon&#44; lung &#40;small cell&#44; non-small cell and mesothelioma&#41;&#44; skin&#44; ovarian and prostate cancer&#46; In vitro&#44; VGSC activity has been shown to enhance metastatic cell behaviours&#44; such as lateral motility and invasion&#46; This induces tumour cells to become &#8220;electrically excitable&#8221;&#44; becoming hyperactive and aggressive&#46; This is known as CELEX &#40;for cellular excitability&#41;&#44; and is a novel hypothesis of metastatic progression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> In this regard&#44; Fraser et al&#46; suggest that intra- and postoperative local anaesthetics may reduce the ability of tumour cells to metastasise by blocking VGSC and thus inhibiting their motility and invasiveness&#46; This&#44; in turn&#44; could reduce the ability of the cancer cells to escape from the perioperative area and metastasise&#44; which would increase patient survival and improve quality of life&#46; Aside from VGSC blockage&#44; local anaesthetics have been shown to exhibit antiproliferative properties&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">In vitro</span> studies have shown that exposure to lidocaine inhibits Src protein tyrosine kinase activation in neoplastic cells&#44; a protein involved in proliferation&#44; migration&#44; invasiveness and tumour metastasis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#44;48</span></a> In tumour cells&#44; lidocaine and other local anaesthetics have also been shown to inhibit the expression of intercellular adhesion molecules&#44; which are synthesised <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">de novo</span> during the process of metastasis&#46; In a recent study in cultures of breast tumour cells&#44; Chang et al&#46; found that lidocaine has apoptosis-inducing properties&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0495"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> With respect to clinical practice&#44; retrospective studies with regional anaesthesia suggest that local anaesthetics might protect against tumour recurrence&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a> However&#44; more recent investigations found no differences in survival when compared to patients who did not receive local anaesthetics&#46; These discrepancies could be due to the different routes of administration and plasma concentration of local anaesthetics&#44; and also to differences in the behaviour to the tumours studied&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Conclusions</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Evidence supports the use of iv lidocaine perfusion in a wide variety of procedures&#44; due to its analgesic&#44; anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperalgesia action&#46; Pharmacokinetic studies have shown the most effective concentration need to achieve the desired effect&#44; and lidocaine toxicity is rare&#46; The advantages of lidocaine include its efficacy and effectiveness in abdominal surgery and outpatient surgery procedures&#44; and it is also used in different fast track surgery protocols&#46; The latest studies analyse its potential to prevent the development of chronic POP by minimising the appearance of opioid-induced hyperalgesia&#44; and it can be used as an opioid-sparing analgesic technique&#46; Opioid-sparing anaesthesia has been extensively researched&#44; but prospective studies are needed to show that it improves anaesthetic outcomes compared to standard opioid-based techniques&#46; Some authors hypothesise that iv lidocaine infusion can reduce the risk of PCD in elderly patients&#44; potentially due to its neuroprotective effects&#44; opioid sparing properties and impact on pain reduction&#46; Retrospective and preliminary <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span> studies indicate that lidocaine inhibits tumour cell proliferation by blocking VGSC and other molecular targets&#46; Although these findings are encouraging&#44; further research in animals and humans is needed to develop clinical indications&#46; Intravenous lidocaine perfusion could be indicated in a context of multimodal analgesia due to its capacity to modulate the inflammatory response produced by surgical stress&#44; and it is considered essential in today&#39;s perioperative practice&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Funding</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">No funding&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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              "titulo" => "Cancer recurrence"
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            0 => "Intravenous lidocaine"
            1 => "Opioid free anaesthesia"
            2 => "Opioid-induced hyperalgesia"
            3 => "Post-operative cognitive dysfunction"
            4 => "Cancer recurrence"
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            0 => "Lidoca&#237;na intravenosa"
            1 => "Anestesia libre de opioides"
            2 => "Hiperalgesia inducida por opioides"
            3 => "Disfunci&#243;n cognitiva posoperatoria"
            4 => "Recurrencia de c&#225;ncer"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Systemic lidocaine used in continuous infusion during the peri-operative period has analgesic&#44; anti-hyperalgesic&#44; as well as anti-inflammatory properties&#46; This makes it capable of reducing the use of opioids and inhalational anaesthetics&#44; and the early return of bowel function&#44; and patient hospital stay&#46; The aim of this narrative review was to highlight the pharmacology and indications for clinical application&#44; along with new and interesting research areas&#46; The clinical applications of peri-operative lidocaine infusion have been reviewed in several recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses in patients undergoing open and laparoscopic abdominal procedures&#44; ambulatory procedures&#44; and other types of surgery&#46; Peri-operative lidocaine infusion may be a useful analgesic adjunct in enhanced recovery protocols&#46; Potential benefits of intravenous lidocaine in chronic post-surgical pain&#44; post-operative cognitive dysfunction&#44; and cancer recurrence are under investigation&#46; Due to its immunomodulation properties over surgical stress&#44; current evidence suggests that intravenous lidocaine could be used in the context of multimodal analgesia&#46;</p></span>"
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      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La perfusi&#243;n perioperatoria de lidoca&#237;na intravenosa tiene propiedades analg&#233;sicas&#44; antihiperalg&#233;sicas y antiinflamatorias&#44; disminuyendo el consumo de opioides y agentes vol&#225;tiles&#44; brindando una r&#225;pida recuperaci&#243;n de la funci&#243;n intestinal y alta hospitalaria&#46; Esta revisi&#243;n narrativa tiene como objetivo exponer su farmacolog&#237;a e indicaciones para su aplicaci&#243;n en la cl&#237;nica anest&#233;sica&#46; Recientes revisiones sistem&#225;ticas y metaan&#225;lisis confirman su empleo en cirug&#237;a abdominal videolaparosc&#243;pica y abierta&#44; como tambi&#233;n en otros tipos de cirug&#237;a&#44; destac&#225;ndose su uso en protocolos de pronta recuperaci&#243;n&#46; Potenciales beneficios en dolor cr&#243;nico posoperatorio&#44; disfunci&#243;n cognitiva posoperatoria y recurrencia de c&#225;ncer est&#225;n siendo investigados&#46; La evidencia actual avala su administraci&#243;n en el contexto de analgesia multimodal debido a sus propiedades inmunomoduladoras sobre el estr&#233;s quir&#250;rgico&#44; consider&#225;ndose un f&#225;rmaco necesario en la cl&#237;nica perioperatoria moderna&#46;</p></span>"
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      0 => array:2 [
        "etiqueta" => "&#63;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; Soto G&#44; Naranjo Gonz&#225;lez M&#44; Calero F&#46; Perfusi&#243;n de lidoca&#237;na intravenosa&#46; Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim&#46; 2018&#59;65&#58;269&#8211;274&#46;</p>"
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        "etiqueta" => "&#63;&#63;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0010">This article is part of the Anaesthesiology and Resuscitation Continuing Medical Education Program&#46; An evaluation of the questions on this article can be made through the Internet by accessing the Education Section of the following web page&#58; <a class="elsevierStyleInterRef" target="_blank" id="intr0010" href="http://www.elsevier.es/redar">www&#46;elsevier&#46;es&#47;redar</a></p>"
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ISSN: 23411929
Original language: English
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es en pt

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