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Continuing education
Diagnostic nerve blocks in the management of low back pain secondary to facet joint syndrome
Bloqueos diagnósticos en el manejo del paciente con lumbalgia secundaria a síndrome facetario
J. de Andrés Ares
Corresponding author
javierdeandresares@gmail.com

Corresponding author.
, F. Gilsanz
Servicio de Anestesiología-Unidad del Dolor, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
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on the one hand&#44; of the vertebral bodies and the intervertebral disc&#44; and on the other&#44; of the junction between the superior articular processes and the inferior articular processes of each adjacent vertebra&#46; The junction between the superior vertebral process of the vertebra below and the inferior vertebral process of the vertebra above is called the zigoapofisaria or facet joint &#40;FJ&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Each facet joint derives its name from its associated vertebra&#59; therefore&#44; the FJ between the right L3 and L4 is called the right facet joint L3&#8211;L4&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0440"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Each FJ is innervated by 2 medial branches &#40;which are dorsal primary rami&#41;&#46; At the lumbar level&#44; they are innervated by the medial branch of the dorsal ramus &#40;MBDR&#41; from the same level and one level above&#44; so that FJ L3&#8211;L4 is innervated by the L2 MBDR and the L3 MBDR<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0445"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0005">Figs&#46; 1 and 2</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Each MBDR innervates 2 FJs&#44; so that the MBDR of L3 will innervate FJ L3&#8211;L4 and FJ L4&#8211;L5&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The medial lumbar ramus arises from the dorsal primary ramus and runs along the pedicle of the superior articular process &#40;SAP&#41; of the vertebra below&#46; After crossing the pedicle of the SAP&#44; it travels towards the lamina&#44; passes inferior to the mamillo-accessory ligament &#40;which protects it&#41;&#44; and then divides into 2 branches&#58; one innervates the FJ at that level&#44; and another innervates the FJ one level below&#44; the interspinous ligament and muscle and the multifidus muscle&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0435"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a> The medial branch of L5&#44; however&#44; originates from the dorsal ramus of L5 nerve in the lower portion of the L5&#8211;S1 facet&#44; and then runs along the groove formed between the base of the S1 superior articulating process and the sacral ala&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0445"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">The facet joints are the cause of low back pain</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The FJs have been known for many years to cause low back pain&#46; The first investigator to show this was Ghormley<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0450"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> in 1933&#44; who introduced the oblique view in radiology to see the intra-articular space and the degree to which it could be affected by osteoarthritis&#46; Later&#44; Mixter and Barr<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0455"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> showed that nociceptive stimulation of FJs in healthy volunteers caused lumbago&#46; Following this&#44; Shealy<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0460"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a> was the first to argue that the surgical denervation of the nerves that supply the FJs alleviated low back pain&#46; Mooney and Robertson<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0470"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> showed that the FJs were the source of certain types of low back pain&#44; and that in certain cases FJ pain referral affected certain parts of the legs in a similar way to sciatica&#46; These authors coined the term &#8220;facet syndrome&#8221;&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Facet joint-related low back pain</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">FJ pain is usually a lumbar&#44; mechanical&#44; nociceptive pain with a pattern of referral that extends to the gluteal region and the back of the thighs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0425"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5&#44;15</span></a> Other structures that can cause low back pain &#40;vertebral bodies&#44; intervertebral disc&#44; dura mater&#44; nerve roots&#44; sacroiliac joint&#44; muscles&#44; ligaments and fascias&#41; may overlap the referred pain pattern of FJ-related pain&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0480"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> which is why it is so difficult to establish the cause of low back pain&#46; The main cause of FJ involvement is usually arthritic degeneration&#44; although other pathological processes may also affect these joints&#44; such as rheumatoid arthritis&#44; reactive arthritic processes&#44; ankylosing spondylitis&#44; facet chondromalacia&#44; pseudogout&#44; villonodular synovitis&#44; facet cysts&#44; and of course&#44; low back injury&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Physical examination in low back pain</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For years&#44; many researchers have attempted to develop a series of diagnostic clinical criteria that would establish the FJ as the cause of low back pain&#46; This has led to the inclusion in the patient history and physical examination of the following criteria as indicators of pain that may be FJ-related&#58; unilateral or bilateral lumbar pain in the buttocks&#44; hips or back of the thigh&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#8211;21</span></a> pseudo-radicular pain&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> morning stiffness&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> lumbar flexion pain&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22&#44;23</span></a> pain on lumbar extension&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;18&#44;23</span></a> pain on lumbar lateral rotation&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0490"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#8211;20</span></a> pain when sitting&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0520"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> paravertebral contracture&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#8211;19</span></a> negative neurological examination&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0485"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;19&#44;25</span></a> and normal gait&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0530"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a> However&#44; the sensitivity and specificity of these criteria is very low&#46; This is why patient history and physical examination are fundamental for screening patients with low back pain&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0535"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> but cannot establish FJ as the specific cause of the pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0540"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> After excluding other common ethologies&#44; such as discogenic or radicular pain&#44; unilateral or bilateral symptoms that radiate to one or both buttocks&#44; groin and thighs without passing the knee can be presumed to be facet joint-related pain&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Imaging tests in lumbar pain</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Arthritis or facet degeneration&#44; which is usually diagnosed with imaging tests&#44; is a potential cause of low back pain&#46; According to Pathria et al&#46;&#44; plain oblique radiography has a sensitivity of 55&#37; and a specificity of 69&#37; in distinguishing between the presence and absence of degenerative disease in FJs of L3-4 to L5&#8211;S1 in 50 consecutive patients with back pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0545"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> The specificity of oblique radiography in distinguishing absent or mild disease from moderate or severe disease was higher &#40;94&#37;&#41;&#44; but its sensitivity was far lower&#44; at 23&#37;&#46; Interobserver agreement among the radiologists performing the plain radiology study was 57&#37;&#44; but the discrepancy rate was 43&#37;&#46; The interobserver agreement in computerised tomography &#40;CT&#41; scan of patients with facet arthrosis showed a kappa value of 0&#46;46&#44; which represents perfect agreement in 63&#37; of cases&#44; and discrepancy in 27&#37;&#46; This shows that plain radiography is inadequate for early detection of facet degeneration&#46; Both CT and magnetic resonance imaging &#40;MRI&#41; are valid tools for detecting facet degeneration&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0550"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span></a> FJ arthritis can be classified into 4 grades&#44; according to the imaging tests<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0550"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">30&#44;31</span></a>&#58;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Grade 0</span>&#46; Normal</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Grade 1</span>&#46; Mild degenerative disease&#58; joint space narrowing less than 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm and&#47;or small osteophytes and&#47;or mild hypertrophy of the articular process&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Grade 2</span>&#46; Moderate degenerative disease&#58; joint space narrowing <span class="elsevierStyleMonospace">&#40;&#60;</span>1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#41; and&#47;or moderate osteophytes and&#47;or moderate hypertrophy of the articular process and&#47;or mild subarticular bone erosions&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Grade 3</span>&#46; Severe degenerative disease&#58; narrowing of the facet joint space and&#47;or large osteophytes and&#47;or severe hypertrophy of the articular process and&#47;or severe subarticular bone erosions and&#47;or subchondral cysts and&#47;or vacuum phenomenon&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The problem is that patients with grade 2 and 3 degeneration may not have low back pain&#44; and patients with grade 0 and 1 arthritis may present FJ pain&#59; in other words&#44; there is no correlation between specific imaging tests &#40;CT and MRI&#41; and the presence or absence of lumbar pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> More complex imaging tests&#44; such as scintigraphy &#40;an imaging technique in which the distribution of a low-dose radioactive tracer is shown in the patient&#39;s body&#41;&#44; show contradictory results for the diagnosis of low back pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0565"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33&#8211;35</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Nerve block diagnosis of lumbar pain</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given that the clinical history and physical examination are not diagnostic in this context&#44; and imaging tests lack the sensitivity and specificity needed to show that the low back pain is FJ-related&#44; diagnostic nerve blocks are the only valid method of diagnosing FJ-related low back pain&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This diagnostic approach is based on the notion that if the FJ is the cause of low back pain&#44; blocking this joint or the nerve that innervates it with a local anaesthetic will alleviate the patient&#39;s back pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> There are&#44; therefore&#44; 2 approaches&#58; blockade with local anaesthetic of the FJ itself&#44; or lumbar medial branch block &#40;MBB&#41; to anaesthetise the MBDR&#46; While intra-facet joint block could be a valid approach&#44; it has not been validated as a diagnostic method&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0540"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> In addition&#44; intra-facet joint block&#44; like discography in the diagnosis of discogenic pain&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> could accelerate the degenerative process of healthy FJs&#46;</p><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Validity of diagnostic nerve blocks</span><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For a test to be valid&#44; it must have both face validity and content validity&#46; In diagnostic MBB&#44; face validity refers to the accuracy of the technique&#44; that is&#44; it anaesthetises exclusively what it sets out to anaesthetises and spares other structures&#46; Content validity refers to the sensitivity&#44; specificity and prevalence of the nerve block&#46; With respect to face validity&#44; the technique must fulfil the following criteria&#58; it anaesthetises exclusively the structure that it aims to anaesthetise&#59; it spares other structures that should not be anaesthetised&#46; Face validity measures the accuracy of the nerve block&#44; and can be tested in anatomical cadaveric studies that evaluate whether the target nerves are exclusively anaesthetised and not others &#40;since this could falsify the result of the test&#41;&#46; In the case of diagnostic MBB&#44; these studies evaluate whether this particular nerve is anaesthetised and not adjacent structures that are potential sources pain&#44; which would give a false positive result of the test&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> The anatomical face validity was demonstrated by Dreyfuss&#44; who showed<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0595"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> that only the MBDR was anaesthetised by placing spinal needles over these nerves and taking radiographs to demonstrate their precise locations&#44; following which an appropriate volume of local anaesthetic was injected in two positions for each nerve&#46; The physiological face validity was demonstrated by Kaplan<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span></a> by showing that anaesthetizing the MBDR in healthy volunteers prevented experimentally induced lumbar pain&#46; In order for MBB to give adequate pain relief&#44; the recommendations of the Spine Intervention Society must be followed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Content validity refers to the extent to which a test distinguishes patients who have the condition tested &#40;in this case&#44; FJ-related lumbar pain&#41; from those who do not&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">42</span></a> A control nerve block can be used to improve the content validity of a test&#46; For the blockade to be valid&#44; it must be specific and controlled&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0615"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> Specific means that it reaches the structures to be anaesthetised&#44; and only anaesthetises those structures&#46; This is demonstrated by injecting small volumes of contrast medium &#40;less than 0&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml&#41; and observing its spread with the help of an imaging technique&#44; in this case fluoroscopy&#46; The spread of the contrast medium in the target area &#40;in this case&#44; the MBDR&#41;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">44</span></a> should be documented on hard-copy films or on specialised paper&#46; Controlled means that at least 2 blocks should be performed in order to avoid false positives&#46; There are many types of controlled nerve blocks&#44; although the most widely used is the comparative control block&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0625"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> which consists of performing one nerve block with a short-acting local anaesthetic such as lidocaine&#44; and a second block with a longer-acting local anaesthetic such as bupivacaine&#46; The patient should report relief coinciding with the duration of the anaesthetic used in each case&#46; Strictly speaking&#44; these nerve blocks should be performed with placebo&#44; although this would raise ethical issues&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0615"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> The problem usually arises due to the fact that the analgesic effect of short-acting local anaesthetics can sometimes last beyond their half life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0630"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> This is thought to be due to a neuromodulatory effect&#44; or to the fact that local anaesthetics have been studied in healthy individuals whose nociceptive pathways differ from those of pain patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0635"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a></p><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In diagnostic MBB&#44; studies have shown that single blocks &#40;that is&#44; performing a single block for diagnosis&#41; lack validity&#44; since they have a false positive rate between 25&#37; and 45&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></a> If a correctly performed diagnostic block is positive&#44; there is no way of knowing for certain that this is a true positive or a false positive&#46; In order for it to be valid&#44; a control method must be used&#46; A standard control technique has yet to be established&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0645"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span></a> One approach is to administer 2 nerve blocks&#44; one with a short-acting local anaesthetic &#40;lidocaine&#41; and another with a long-acting local anaesthetic &#40;bupivacaine&#41;&#59; this type of block is called a double&#44; or comparative&#44; block&#46; A comparative block can be positive and concordant&#44; that is&#44; the duration of pain relief corresponds with the duration of action of the local anaesthetic used&#44; or positive and discordant&#44; in which relief in both cases does not correspond to the estimated duration of action of the local anaesthetic&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0625"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span></a> The performance of comparative blocks has been validated in neck pain&#44; with a specificity ranging from 65&#37; to 88&#37;&#44; depending on the cutoff pain level<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a> used to determine positivity&#46; However&#44; they have not been validated in low back pain&#46; This is because a high percentage &#40;over 50&#37;&#41; of cases of chronic cervicalgia are facet joint-related&#44; while the prevalence of facet joint-related low back pain is lower&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0430"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> and depends to a great extent on the age of the individual&#46; This has led to the performance of placebo-controlled blocks&#44; in which local anaesthetic and saline are administered during the diagnostic test&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Pain relief cutoff point</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Another important issue is the cut-off value used to determine pain relief during diagnostic nerve block&#44; that is&#44; whether 50&#37; relief of baseline pain is considered positive&#44; or 80&#37; of 100&#37; of baseline pain&#46; The sensitivity and specificity data available for diagnostic MBB have been determined with 100&#37; pain relief&#46; This suggest that lowering the pain relief cutoff point &#40;considering the block positive if it alleviates less than 100&#37; of baseline pain&#41; will give worse results&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">51</span></a> It would also suggest that the cause of low back pain could be multifactorial&#44; that is&#44; not exclusively lumbar facet joint-related&#46; However&#44; certain studies have shown that the presence of facet joint-related pain&#44; together with discogenic pain or sacroiliac pain&#44; occurs in only 5&#37; of patients&#59; therefore&#44; chronic low back pain is unlikely to have a multifactorial aetiology&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52&#44;53</span></a> The performance of more than one diagnostic block for the diagnosis of facet joint-related low back pain continues to be controversial&#44; and authors such as Cohen report that this approach is not cost-effective&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Performance of diagnostic nerve blocks</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the best results&#44; diagnostic MBB should always be image-guided&#46; CT-guided techniques&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0675"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span></a> undoubtedly the most accurate&#44; have been described&#44; although the radiation received by the patient calls into question their usefulness in routine clinical practice&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0680"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span></a> Ultrasound-guided techniques<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0685"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">57&#8211;59</span></a> have become increasingly popular&#44; and have clear advantages in terms of radiation exposure of patients and doctors&#46; Although some comparative studies have shown their effectiveness when compared to fluoroscopy and CT&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0700"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">60</span></a> they are retrospective and methodologically deficient&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The most widely accepted technique is fluoroscopically-guided nerve block&#46; We will briefly describe the technique recommended by the Spine Intervention Society&#44; which is accepted by many pain societies&#44; including the Australian and New Zealand Society of Anaesthetists&#44; the American Academy of Pain Medicine and the British Pain Society&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a></p><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Fluoroscopically-guided nerve block</span><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The patient is placed in the prone position&#44; with a small pillow under the hips to correct lumbar lordosis&#46; Check that the patient does not present any transitional anomaly at the vertebral level&#44; as this would complicate the initial management of low back pain&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0705"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a> The level of the nerve block will depend on the patient&#39;s symptoms and possible signs of joint degeneration &#40;if present&#41; on specific imaging tests&#44; such as lumbar CT or MRI&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> It is important to bear in mind that FJs are innervated by 2 MBDRs&#44; so a multisegmentary blockade is required&#46; The block is usually performed at the level of MBDR L2&#44; MBDR L3&#44; MBDR L4 and the posterior ramus of L5&#46; An anteroposterior image is obtained and an attempt is made to &#8220;square&#8221; the vertebral disc above the level to be treated &#40;so that the X-ray beam is directed parallel to the upper vertebral disc&#41;&#46; Once squared&#44; an oblique&#44; 30&#8211;40&#176; ipsilateral image is obtained&#44; although this will depend on the patient&#39;s anatomy and physiognomy&#46; Try to avoid the &#8220;parallax effect&#8221;&#44; which involves the apparent displacement or the difference in apparent direction of an object as seen from 2 different points not on a straight line with the object&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a> The &#8220;parallax&#8221; effect distorts the fluoroscopy Image 63 Image&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0715"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> and is avoided by placing the target area in the centre of the image&#46; Once the oblique image has been obtained&#44; the junction between the SAP and the transverse process is located&#46; The blocking needle is advanced using the &#8220;tunnel vision&#8221; technique&#44; so that it is seen as a dot on the fluoroscopy monitor &#40;i&#46;e&#46;&#44; the needle is parallel to the X-ray beam&#41;&#46; The needle is advanced as far as the periosteum&#46; Anteroposterior&#44; oblique&#44; lateral and &#8220;tilted&#8221; images are obtained &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#fig0015">Figs&#46; 3&#8211;6</a>&#41;&#46; This latter view is very important&#44; since it shows the tip of the needle with respect to the junction between the PAS and the transverse process &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0025">Fig&#46; 5</a>&#41;&#46; It is obtained with the c-arm positioned cranial and the collimator caudal with respect to the patient&#46; Once the needle is correctly placed&#44; 0&#46;1&#8211;0&#46;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml of non-ionic iodinated contrast medium suitable for myelography is administered&#46; It is essential to observe the spread of contrast medium&#44; since the local anaesthetic injected later will follow the same pattern&#46; The contrast should spread around the pedicle of the SAP without penetrating the foramen or spreading laterally &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0035">Fig&#46; 7</a>&#41;&#46; If this is not achieved&#44; change the position of the needle&#46; No sign contrast on the fluoroscopy monitor probably indicates intravascular injection&#44; which occurs in up to 3&#46;7&#37; of cases&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0720"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a> although it could also indicate intraosseous injection&#44; since the prevalence of facet syndrome is higher in elderly patients who are also more likely to present osteoporosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span></a> Finally&#44; it should be noted that the diagnostic block should only be performed with local anaesthetic&#59; no steroids should be administered&#44; as they can alter the result&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">66</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0025"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0030"></elsevierMultimedia><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0035"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Ultrasound-guided nerve block</span><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several ultrasound-guided techniques for MBB and lumbar facet joint block have been described&#44; and their efficacy has been demonstrated in comparative studies with CT&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0690"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">58&#44;67&#8211;70</span></a> The patient is placed in the prone position&#59; a convex transducer is preferably used&#44; placed transversely above the spinous process to be treated&#46; The acoustic shadow of the spinous process should be visualised in the middle part of the ultrasound screen&#46; The transducer is moved slowly in a caudal direction until the lower transverse process is observed&#46; A 22<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>G spinal needle is inserted in plane until it contacts the bone at the junction between superior articular process and the transverse process&#44; which is where the MBDR is located&#46; After negative aspiration&#44; less than 0&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml of local anaesthetic is injected&#46; The presence of the prominent iliac crests may obstruct the in-plane view at the level of the transverse processes of L5 and the posterior ramus of L5&#46; The main problem with ultrasound-guided block is the absence of contrast&#46; We believe that the use of contrast to predict the posterior spread of the anaesthetic is of paramount importance for successful diagnostic MBB&#46; Combined ultrasound-fluoroscopy techniques&#44; which reduce radiation exposure&#44; both for patients and health personnel&#44; are probably the best approach&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">After the nerve block</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Once the block has been performed&#44; if it is positive &#40;depending on the criteria used&#41;&#44; a longer lasting pain relief technique&#44; such as thermal radiofrequency<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0755"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">71</span></a> or cryopdenervation can be performed&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a> If the diagnostic block is negative&#44; other possible causes of chronic low back pain should be considered&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Discussion</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to Hildebrandt&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0765"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">73</span></a> the diagnostic use of neural blockade rests on three premises&#46; First&#44; pathology causing pain is located in an exact peripheral location&#44; and impulses from this site travel along a unique and consistent neural root&#46; Second&#44; injection of local anaesthetic totally abolishes the sensory function of intended nerves and does not affect other nerves&#46; Third&#44; pain relief after local anaesthetic block is attributable solely to blockade of the target afferent neural pathway&#46; For Hildebrandt&#44; however&#44; the validity of these assumptions is limited by complexities of anatomy&#44; physiology&#44; and the important part that psychology plays in pain perception&#46; Analysing Hildebrandt&#39;s premises shows that facet joint pain is transmitted in a consistent manner&#44; that standardised administration of local anaesthetic following the SIS guidelines &#40;anatomically accurate location&#44; low volume&#44; monitored spread of contrast&#41; will anaesthetise the MBDR&#44; and finally&#44; that achieving adequate blockade&#44; that is&#44; without the use of corticosteroids&#44; and establishing a high cutoff value for positivity&#44; will provide pain relief by blocking the afferent pathway&#46; This is why&#44; despite Hildebrandt&#39;s remarks&#44; performing the standard nerve block exactly as indicated is undoubtedly a valid diagnostic procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">74</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">One of the innovations introduced in pain units in the last decade has been the use of diagnostic nerve blocks to help manage patients with complex pain&#46; These are usually diagnostic&#44; and can predict the main structure that generates pain&#46; Accurate administration of the blockade followed by scientific&#44; ethical analysis of the results will allow clinicians to choose the most appropriate treatment&#44; such as radiofrequency denervation<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0775"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75</span></a> or cryopdenervation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">72</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Three aspects of diagnostic nerve block remain controversial&#46; The first is the number or type of blocks to be administered&#46; Although some studies question not only the benefit of controlled nerve blocks&#44; but also the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of this diagnostic technique&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> we believe that it can effectively reduce the number of false positives&#44; and thus improve the outcomes of denervation procedures&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0780"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">76</span></a> However&#44; in the public health system it is difficult to perform double diagnostic blocks due to long waiting lists&#44; and this can have a negative impact on the subsequent denervation technique&#46; The second controversial aspect is the cut-off value used to establish positivity of a block&#44; that is&#44; whether a block with 50&#37;&#44; 80&#37; or 100&#37; of relief from baseline pain should be considered positive&#46; The more optimal the cut-off point to establish positivity of the diagnostic block&#44; the better the outcome of the denervation procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0785"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">77</span></a> Finally&#44; the question remains as to whether the diagnostic block should involve the nerves that innervate the joint &#40;lumbar MBB&#41; or the joint itself &#40;intra facetary block&#41;&#46; We believe that since radiofrequency denervation or cryodenervation will be the most effective treatment in the long run&#44; it is best to block the same structure that will later be treated&#46; Moreover&#44; diagnostic MBBs have been validated&#44; while intrafacetary blocks have not&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0790"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78</span></a> Finally&#44; we believe that given their size and histological complexity&#44; piercing FJs with the nerve block needle could accelerate the existing degenerative process&#44; as shown by Carragee in diagnostic discography&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a></p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a recent article&#44; Cohen shows that intra-facial infiltrations of local anaesthetic and corticosteroids do not have long-term analgesic benefit&#44; although they could benefit certain patients in whom denervation of the multifidus muscle &#40;which is unavoidable in radiofrequency denervation of the MBDR&#41; could be harmful&#44; such as young people with inflammatory processes or athletes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0795"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">79</span></a> Some cases of camptocormia&#44; a postural disorder that is characterised by excessive flexion of the spine&#44; after repeated denervation of the multifidus muscle following radiofrequency treatment of the MBDR have been reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0800"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Conclusions</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">FJs can cause of chronic low back pain&#46; Physical examination&#44; patient-reported pain patterns&#44; and imaging tests do not have the sensitivity and specificity required to predict whether low back pain is facet joint-related&#46; Diagnostic nerve blocks&#44; correctly performed in accordance with the guidelines of the Spine Intervention Society&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> are effective in establishing FJ as a possible cause of low back pain&#44; which is an indication for denervation procedures to achieve lasting relief&#46; Ideally&#44; the nerve blocks should be double comparative or controlled&#44; performed under fluoroscopy with &#60;0&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>ml radiographic contrast medium using various views&#44; including anteroposterior&#44; oblique and &#8220;tilted&#8221; to optimise vision of the tip of the needle&#46; It is essential to use contrast medium and observe its spread&#44; as this will predict the spread of the local anaesthetic to the MBDR and will rule out intravascular or intraosseous injection&#46; Further multicentre randomised studies are needed to establish the best method of reliably diagnosing facet joint-related low back pain&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The principal author has no conflict of interest to declare&#46; The main author is the Chairman of the International Education Committee of the Spine Intervention Society&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        1 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1103662"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
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          "identificador" => "xres1183073"
          "titulo" => "Resumen"
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            0 => array:1 [
              "identificador" => "abst0010"
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        3 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1103661"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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        4 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "Introduction"
        ]
        5 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0010"
          "titulo" => "Anatomy of zygapophyseal or facet joints"
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "The facet joints are the cause of low back pain"
        ]
        7 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Facet joint-related low back pain"
        ]
        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0025"
          "titulo" => "Physical examination in low back pain"
        ]
        9 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0030"
          "titulo" => "Imaging tests in lumbar pain"
        ]
        10 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0035"
          "titulo" => "Nerve block diagnosis of lumbar pain"
          "secciones" => array:2 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0040"
              "titulo" => "Validity of diagnostic nerve blocks"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0045"
              "titulo" => "Pain relief cutoff point"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        11 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0050"
          "titulo" => "Performance of diagnostic nerve blocks"
          "secciones" => array:3 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0055"
              "titulo" => "Fluoroscopically-guided nerve block"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0060"
              "titulo" => "Ultrasound-guided nerve block"
            ]
            2 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0065"
              "titulo" => "After the nerve block"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        12 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0070"
          "titulo" => "Discussion"
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        13 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0075"
          "titulo" => "Conclusions"
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        14 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0080"
          "titulo" => "Conflicts of interest"
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        15 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "References"
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      ]
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    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2018-10-01"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2018-11-13"
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        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1103662"
          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Diagnostic block"
            1 => "Low back pain"
            2 => "Facet joint syndrome"
            3 => "Medial branch radiofrequency neurotomy"
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "es" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec1103661"
          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Bloqueo diagn&#243;stico"
            1 => "Lumbalgia"
            2 => "S&#237;ndrome facetario"
            3 => "Radiofrecuencia del ramo medial lumbar"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
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    "resumen" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Low back pain is currently one of the main public health problems&#46; Among the multiple causes&#44; pain in the zygapophysial joints&#44; also called facets or posterior vertebral joints&#44; are an important cause&#44; usually secondary to osteoarthritis&#46; The source of low back pain is often difficult to find&#44; making the therapeutic approach to the patient sub-optimal&#46; Diagnostic blocks are a very important tool in establishing an adequate treatment for patients with low back pain&#44; as long as they are performed accurately&#44; with an adequate local anaesthetic volume&#44; with a suitable image and fluoroscopic projection and its result are precisely interpreted&#46; In this article a review is presented on the importance of diagnostic blocks&#44; as well as how they should be performed in order to obtain the maximum information and the greatest therapeutic benefit&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">El dolor lumbar o lumbalgia es uno de los principales problemas de salud p&#250;blica de la sociedad actual&#46; De entre las m&#250;ltiples causas de la misma las articulaciones zigoapofisarias&#44; tambi&#233;n denominadas facetas o articulaciones vertebrales posteriores&#44; son una causa importante&#44; generalmente secundaria a artrosis&#46; El diagn&#243;stico de la causa de la lumbalgia suele ser en muchas ocasiones dif&#237;cil&#44; haciendo que el enfoque terap&#233;utico del paciente no sea el &#243;ptimo&#46; Los bloqueos diagn&#243;sticos constituyen una herramienta de suma importancia para establecer un tratamiento adecuado del paciente con lumbalgia&#44; siempre y cuando sean realizados de manera precisa&#44; con un volumen adecuado de anest&#233;sico local&#44; con una imagen y proyecci&#243;n fluorosc&#243;pica id&#243;nea y el resultado sea interpretado de manera exacta&#46; En el siguiente art&#237;culo revisaremos la importancia de los bloqueos diagn&#243;sticos&#44; as&#237; como el modo en que deben ser realizados&#44; para obtener la m&#225;xima informaci&#243;n de los mismos y el mayor beneficio terap&#233;utico&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
    ]
    "NotaPie" => array:1 [
      0 => array:2 [
        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; de Andr&#233;s Ares J&#44; Gilsanz F&#46; Bloqueos diagn&#243;sticos en el manejo del paciente con lumbalgia secundaria a s&#237;ndrome facetario&#46; Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim&#46; 2019&#59;66&#58;213&#8211;221&#46;</p>"
      ]
    ]
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        "etiqueta" => "Figure 1"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Diagram showing the position of the medial ramus&#44; which is targeted in diagnostic blocks to determine whether the patient&#39;s low back pain in facet joint-related &#40;AZAP&#41;&#46; GRD&#58; dorsal root ganglion&#59; 1&#58; ventral ramus&#59; 2&#58; dorsal raums&#59; 3&#58; lateral branch of the dorsal ramus&#59; 4&#58; medial branch of the dorsal ramus&#59; 5&#58; articular branch for the FJ at the same level&#59; 6&#58; articular branch for the FJ one level down&#46;</p>"
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        "etiqueta" => "Figure 2"
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          0 => array:4 [
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Image showing the anteroposterior view of the vertebral bodies of L2&#8211;L3&#8211;L4 and L5 &#40;in grey&#41;&#46; The lines show the course of the medial branch of the dorsal ramus &#40;MBDR&#41;&#46; Note that the MBDR of L2 &#40;number 1&#41; passes over the junction of the superior articular process of the L3 vertebra and its transverse process&#44; and gives 2 branches&#44; one for the facet joint &#40;FJ&#41; L2&#8211;L3&#44; and another for FJ L3&#8211;L4&#46; Note that the MBDR of L3 &#40;number 2&#41; passes over the junction of the superior articular process of the L4 vertebra and its transverse process&#44; and gives 2 branches&#44; one for facet joint &#40;FJ&#41; L3&#8211;L4&#44; and another for FJ L4&#8211;L5&#46;</p>"
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Oblique view&#58; diagram showing the target injection site to block the medial branch of the dorsal nerve&#46; Note that the image is oblique&#46; The numbers mark the site of the juction between the superior articular process of L3 and its transverse process&#44; which corresponds to the MBDR of L2 &#40;number 1&#41;&#44; MBDR of L3 &#40;number 2&#41; and MBDR of L4 &#40;number 3&#41;&#46;</p>"
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        "etiqueta" => "Figure 4"
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            "imagen" => "gr4.jpeg"
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Oblique view&#58; insertion of the blocking needles in the junction between the superior articular process and its transverse process&#46;</p>"
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        "identificador" => "fig0025"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 5"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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            "imagen" => "gr5.jpeg"
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        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Anteroposterior view&#46; Anteroposterior view&#44; showing the position of the needles for diagnostic block&#46;</p>"
        ]
      ]
      5 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "fig0030"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 6"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "gr6.jpeg"
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        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">&#8220;Tilted&#8221; view&#46; Image clearly showing the margin of the junction between the superior articular process and the transverse process&#44; together with the posterior branch of 15 at the junction between the superior articular process of S1 and the sacral ala &#40;the furthest caudal&#41;&#46; Notice how the blocking needles enter the image in a cranio-caudal direction&#46; The C-arm should be below the patient&#44; in a cranio-caudal direction&#46;</p>"
        ]
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        "identificador" => "fig0035"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 7"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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            "Tamanyo" => 190834
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        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "<p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Contrast-enhanced &#8220;tilted&#8221; view&#46; Image showing correct spread of contrast medium&#44; except in the needle at the MBDR of L2 &#40;the furthest cranial&#41;&#44; in which the contrast spreads laterally&#46; In this case&#44; the needle must be repositioned before administering the local anaesthetic&#46;</p>"
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      "titulo" => "References"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "bibs0015"
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:80 [
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                          ]
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ISSN: 23411929
Original language: English
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es en pt

¿Es usted profesional sanitario apto para prescribir o dispensar medicamentos?

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?

Você é um profissional de saúde habilitado a prescrever ou dispensar medicamentos