How to enhance the entrepreneurial intentions of the young population in rural areas: An approach from personal values and the socioeconomic environment

Abstract

This study investigates the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among university students in the rural region of Comarca Sierra Sur, Andalusia, Spain. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior, the analysis reveals that attitudes toward entrepreneurship and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors of entrepreneurial intentions. Positive attitudes and a strong sense of control are closely associated with entrepreneurial intentions, while subjective norms show no significant effect, suggesting that social expectations may function differently in rural areas. Additionally, personal values such as openness to change and self-enhancement positively influence entrepreneurial intentions, whereas conservatism is negatively associated. This research fills a gap in the literature by extending the Theory of Planned Behavior to a rural context, where prior studies have been limited. The findings highlight the need to tailor entrepreneurship policies to the unique characteristics of rural areas and emphasize the importance of personal values and perceived control in fostering entrepreneurship. These insights are particularly relevant for policymakers aiming to stimulate economic development and entrepreneurship in rural regions.

1

Introduction

Over the last few decades, rural areas have faced a multitude of challenges that hinder their socio-economic development. Depopulation stands out as one of the most significant issues, driven by the migration of younger individuals to urban areas in search of better opportunities. This has left behind an aging population, contributing to demographic imbalances (Natale et al., 2019). Such migration exacerbates the lack of employment opportunities and diminishes the local labor force, leading to economic stagnation and a decline in the quality of life (Perpiña Castillo et al., 2023). Additionally, a recent long-term vision for rural areas presented by the European Commission suggests that these territories often suffer from inadequate infrastructure, limited access to capital, and insufficient support services, collectively impeding economic development and the establishment of new businesses (EC, 2024).

In this context, entrepreneurship emerges as a promising opportunity for revitalizing rural territories. The development of an entrepreneurial ecosystem can harness local resources, stimulate innovation, and create employment opportunities, thereby transforming the socio-economic landscape of rural areas (EC, 2024). Entrepreneurs can leverage local knowledge and social capital to establish businesses that cater to the unique needs of their communities, fostering a sense of ownership and sustainable development (Meccheri & Pelloni, 2006). By promoting entrepreneurship, rural areas can diversify their economic activities beyond the primary sector, tapping into new service-oriented ventures that build on local resources and lead to innovative solutions tailored to the rural context (Castellano-Alvarez et al., 2024). This approach not only generates economic benefits but also fosters community resilience, making rural regions more attractive places to live and work.

This study is grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which posits that human behavior is driven by intentions shaped by attitudes toward entrepreneurship, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991, 2020). TPB is distinguished among entrepreneurial intention models by its comprehensive framework, accounting for both personal and social factors, thereby allowing for a nuanced understanding of the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions (EI) (Kautonen et al., 2013). Attitudes reflect an individual's evaluation of entrepreneurship, subjective norms capture perceived social pressures, and perceived behavioral control denotes confidence in one's ability to start a business. These components directly predict EI, with additional factors such as life values and demographic variables influencing EI indirectly through these constructs. While this approach has been validated across diverse contexts, the relative impact of these factors may vary, underscoring the importance of considering context-specific dynamics in entrepreneurship research (Moriano et al., 2012; Barba-Sanchez et al., 2022).

This study seeks to address the critical research question: What are the key factors that influence entrepreneurial intentions among young people in rural settings? The investigation is driven by the need to understand how these factors, often examined in urban contexts, manifest in rural areas where economic dynamics and social structures differ significantly. Specifically, this study aims to identify the factors leading to entrepreneurial intentions among young people in a rural population and to test the applicability of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in this unique setting, thus contributing to the broader discourse on rural entrepreneurship. The study draws on a sample of 599 students from the Escuela Universitaria de Osuna, one of the few institutions providing access to higher education in a rural setting in Spain.

In addition to exploring the core components of TPB, this study considers the role of personal values as a compass for human decision-making. Individuals with strong inclinations toward openness to change, a drive for achievement, and generally more individualistic values may be more prone to developing entrepreneurial intentions than those with more altruistic or conservative values. Furthermore, the study examines the influence of the socio-economic environment, such as family entrepreneurial background and contact with incubators or entrepreneurial centers, in fostering entrepreneurial ambitions. By exploring these factors, this research aims to provide insights that can inform policies and initiatives to foster entrepreneurship in rural communities, ultimately contributing to their socio-economic revitalization.

Despite extensive research on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and entrepreneurial intentions (EI), notable gaps persist in the literature, particularly regarding rural contexts and the interplay between personal values and EI. While numerous studies have validated the TPB constructs—attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control—as predictors of EI in urban settings, inconsistencies arise regarding the influence of subjective norms across different cultural and geographical contexts (Moriano et al., 2012; Sommer & Haug, 2011). Moreover, the predominant focus on urban populations limits the generalizability of these findings to rural areas, where entrepreneurial dynamics may differ significantly due to unique socio-economic factors and limited access to resources (Manzoor et al., 2021; Pato & Teixeira, 2016). Given that most research has been conducted in urban or mixed environments, there is a critical need to investigate these constructs within rural settings to capture the distinct characteristics of the phenomenon (Fischer & Schwartz, 2011). The proposed research not only extends theoretical boundaries but also provides actionable implications for fostering entrepreneurship in rural contexts, which remain underexplored in the current literature.

This study makes several important contributions. First, to the authors' knowledge, this research is the first to analyze the key factors driving entrepreneurial intentions in a rural setting, enhancing our understanding of socio-economic development in these areas. Second, it identifies the specific elements shaping entrepreneurial aspirations among young people in the Comarca Sierra Sur region of Andalusia, Spain, particularly highlighting the influence of attitudes toward entrepreneurship, perceived control, and individual values. Finally, the study provides valuable insights into how entrepreneurship support initiatives can be better tailored to the unique characteristics of rural environments, contributing to the development of strategies that effectively foster entrepreneurship and promote socio-economic progress in these regions.

Following this introduction, the paper is structured as follows. The Theoretical Framework section outlines the core theories relevant to our study, including the Theory of Planned Behavior and its application to entrepreneurial intentions, as well as an exploration of personal values and entrepreneurial intentions in rural contexts. The Hypothesis Development section systematically derives the study's hypotheses based on the theoretical framework and a comprehensive review of the literature. This is followed by the Empirical Approach, which details the methodological strategies employed in our research. The Descriptive Analysis section presents a comprehensive overview of the data. Subsequently, the Results section discusses the findings, and the paper concludes with a synthesis of these results in the Discussion and Conclusions sections.

2

Theoretical framework

2.1

Theories of planned behavior and entrepreneurial intentions

Since the seminal work of Allport (1935), theories of attitudes have significantly influenced various social science disciplines, including psychology, economics, and sociology, leading to extensive literature and subsequent theoretical and empirical developments (e.g., Bardi and Schwartz 2003, Eagly and Chaiken 1993). Among these theories, the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, 2010) and later the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991, 2001, 2012, 2020) are the most widely applied across different fields. These frameworks originate from the desire to understand the determinants of specific behaviors by individuals.

The Theory of Planned Behavior posits that behavior is determined by intentions, which are influenced by three conceptually independent constructs. The first is attitude, defined as a favorable or unfavorable appraisal of a given behavior, encompassing both cognitive and affective components. The cognitive component involves beliefs about the outcomes associated with the behavior—for instance, believing that regular exercise leads to better health–while the affective component pertains to emotional responses; for example, enjoying exercise may result in a favorable affective attitude (Ajzen, 2020).

The second predictor is subjective norms, a social factor that reflects perceived social pressure to engage in or refrain from a behavior. Subjective norms represent social influences and refer to an individual's perception of what others expect them to do, influenced by family, friends, cultural context, and broader societal expectations (Ajzen, 1991, 2001). The third determinant is perceived behavioral control, which denotes an individual's perception of their ability to successfully perform the behavior. This construct is shaped by both internal factors (skills, knowledge) and external factors (resources, environmental constraints). Generally, an individual's intention to perform a certain behavior is stronger when they have a favorable attitude toward it, perceive social approval (subjective norms), and feel a sense of control over the behavior. The significance of these factors—attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control—can vary depending on the specific behavior and context. In some cases, only attitudes may significantly influence intentions, while in others, both attitudes and perceived behavioral control are sufficient, and in certain contexts, all three factors independently contribute to forming intentions (Ajzen, 1991).

The Theory of Planned Behavior has been extensively applied to explain and understand the determinants of business creation (Kautonen et al., 2013; Liñán et al., 2016; Moriano et al., 2012; Nguyen, 2017; Sánchez, 2013; Thu & Le Hieu, 2017; Van Gelderen et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2023). According to Ajzen's framework (1991, 2001, 2012, 2020), the behavior of starting a business is rooted in entrepreneurial intention (EI), which refers to a conscious mindset oriented toward starting a new business (Fayolle et al., 2014; Liñán et al., 2016). In other words, it can be defined as a conscious goal or commitment to establishing a company (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993; Thu & Le Hieu, 2017; Wilson et al., 2007). Studies applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to entrepreneurial behaviors generally find that entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are all significant predictors of entrepreneurial intentions. This predictive capacity is confirmed across various countries, with research samples from Finland and Austria (Kautonen et al., 2013), seven Spanish regions (Liñán et al., 2016), Vietnam (Nguyen, 2017), and the Netherlands (Van Gelderen et al., 2008). However, some studies present differing results regarding the role of subjective norms in predicting EI.

A cross-country analysis (Moriano et al., 2012) involving Germany, India, Iran, Poland, Spain, and the Netherlands concluded that while entrepreneurial attitudes and perceived behavioral control positively impact EI, cultural variations can be observed in the effect of subjective norms. Similarly, some studies focusing on SMEs (Sommer & Haug, 2011) and university students (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993) find that subjective norms have an indirect effect on entrepreneurial intentions (Barba-Sánchez et al., 2022). As originally stated by Ajzen (1991), such inconsistencies may be expected as the capacity of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in predicting intentions can be context-dependent.

A notable aspect of studies analyzing the determinants of EI is their reliance on urban populations, whereas this study aims to identify predictive variables of EI in a Spanish rural area. Given the general agreement across studies on the significance of entrepreneurial attitudes and perceived behavioral control in predicting EI, we assume that variations will be minimal in our specific sample. Regarding subjective norms, we will rely on results from the multi-regional study by Liñán et al. (2016) in Spain, assuming they will also be predictive of EI.

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) remains a crucial framework for understanding entrepreneurial intentions, providing a solid foundation for research in this area. Recent studies, such as Kaur and Chawla (2024), demonstrate how elements of entrepreneurship education, like entrepreneurial knowledge and business planning, indirectly influence intentions through attitudes and perceived behavioral control. Bharti et al. (2024) emphasize the role of individual characteristics and university support in shaping solar entrepreneurial intentions, while Duong et al. (2024) highlight the impact of digital competencies on digital entrepreneurial intentions, moderated by the performance expectancy of AI solutions. Additionally, Chahal et al. (2024) underscore the importance of self-efficacy and the post-pandemic context in shaping entrepreneurial intentions, particularly across different geographic regions. These studies illustrate the continued relevance and adaptability of the TPB framework in advancing research on entrepreneurial intentions across diverse contexts.

2.2

Personal values and entrepreneurial intentions in rural contexts

While the Theory of Planned Behavior can be applied relatively easily to understand entrepreneurial processes in both urban and rural areas, the influence of personal values may vary more significantly across these contexts. Personal values, defined as core beliefs and principles that guide individuals' behavior and decision-making (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003; Schwartz, 1992, 2006, 2011), play a crucial role in shaping entrepreneurial intentions (EI), particularly in rural areas where socioeconomic and cultural conditions differ markedly from urban environments. Although research on the relationship between personal values and EI has been conducted, most studies have focused on urban populations or on samples combining urban and rural groups (Bolzani & Foo, 2018; Hueso et al., 2021; Liñán et al., 2016; Lombardi et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2021). This study seeks to identify how these values influence EI specifically in a rural context.

Just as the Theory of Planned Behavior serves as the main theoretical framework for studying attitudes, Schwartz's theory of basic human values has been widely used to understand how values guide decision-making and promote congruent behaviors (Schwartz, 1992, 2006, 2010, 2012). Schwartz categorizes values into four broad dimensions: Self-Enhancement, Openness to Change, Self-Transcendence, and Conservation, each grounded in ten underlying motivations.

The Self-Enhancement dimension focuses on personal interests and achievements, emphasizing values like power and achievement, which enhance one's status and prestige. These values are oriented toward individualistic and self-centered motivations (Konsky et al., 2000). The Openness to Change dimension emphasizes independence and a readiness for new experiences, focusing on self-expansion and autonomy, including values such as stimulation and self-direction. Like Self-Enhancement, these values are individualistic, prioritizing personal growth and self-fulfillment (Konsky et al., 2000).

Conversely, the Self-Transcendence dimension emphasizes concern for others, prioritizing values like universalism and benevolence, which reflect social concern and altruism. These values are collectivistic, focusing on social harmony and the common good (Peerson & Kajonius, 2016; Schwartz, 2012). The Conservation dimension stresses order, self-restriction, and resistance to change, highlighting values like conformity, tradition, and security. Similar to Self-Transcendence, these values are collectivistic, prioritizing group well-being over individual interests (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003; Schwartz, 1992). Hedonism, associated with both Openness to Change and Self-Enhancement, focuses on pleasure and gratification, bridging individualistic motivations and personal enjoyment.

This theoretical framework has been used to explain how values shape entrepreneurial intentions (Bender et al., 2020; Brieger & De Clercq, 2019; Hueso et al., 2020; Kibler et al., 2014; Liñán & Chen, 2009; Liñán et al., 2016). Empirical evidence generally suggests that the individualistic dimensions of Self-Enhancement and Openness to Change are most likely to foster EI (e.g., Liñán et al. 2016). Since Self-Enhancement is driven by the desire for power and personal achievement, it is widely regarded as a precursor to business creation and personal advancement (Schwartz, 2006; Liñán et al., 2016). Similarly, Openness to Change relates to the desire to embark on new ventures, take initiatives, and challenge conventions (Brieger & De Clercq, 2019; Holland & Shepherd, 2013; De Clercq et al., 2013; Liñán et al., 2016). These characteristics are clearly linked to the development of entrepreneurial intentions.

3

Hypothesis development

The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) has been widely applied to understand entrepreneurial intentions (EI), offering a robust framework for examining how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence an individual's decision to engage in entrepreneurship. According to this theory, intentions are the most proximal predictors of behavior, shaped by three key determinants: an individual's attitude toward the behavior, perceived social pressure (subjective norms), and the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior (perceived behavioral control). Extensive empirical research supports the positive relationship between these constructs and entrepreneurial intentions across diverse contexts (Liñán & Chen, 2009; Kautonen et al., 2013; Moriano et al., 2012).

First, attitudes toward entrepreneurship reflect an individual's overall evaluation of the desirability of starting a business. Studies consistently show that when individuals perceive entrepreneurship as a favorable and rewarding career path, they are more likely to develop strong entrepreneurial intentions (Liñán et al., 2016; Nguyen, 2017). Second, subjective norms, which capture perceived social pressure from significant others to engage in entrepreneurship, have also been identified as important predictors of entrepreneurial intentions. Although the influence of subjective norms can vary depending on cultural and social contexts, they generally play a significant role in shaping intentions, particularly in environments where social approval is critical (Ajzen, 2001; Liñán et al., 2016). Finally, perceived behavioral control, which encompasses an individual's perception of their ability to successfully start and manage a business, significantly influences entrepreneurial intentions by determining the perceived feasibility of the behavior (Van Gelderen et al., 2008; Kautonen et al., 2013).

H1: Attitudes toward entrepreneurship (H1a), subjective norms (H1b), and perceived behavioral control (H1c) are positively related to EI.

The study of entrepreneurial intentions has predominantly focused on individualistic values such as self-enhancement and openness to change, which are typically associated with entrepreneurship. These values align with characteristics like innovation, risk-taking, and the pursuit of personal success—traits seen as key drivers of entrepreneurial behavior. In contrast, the study of collectivistic dimensions, such as self-transcendence and conservation, has been largely overlooked until recent studies began exploring these aspects (e.g., Hueso et al. 2020, Santos et al. 2021, Yang et al. 2023, Yasir et al., 2021). It is generally expected that resistance to change, a key aspect of conservatism, would hinder the formation of entrepreneurial intentions, as entrepreneurs are often characterized by their willingness to innovate and disrupt social expectations (De Clercq & Voronov, 2009; Hueso et al., 2020; Shane & Venkataraman, 2007). Similarly, values associated with benevolence and universalism, central to self-transcendence, may seem opposed to entrepreneurship's primary goals, such as the pursuit of wealth and financial success (Anshika & Singla, 2022), or the egoistic motivations that often drive entrepreneurial endeavors (Hueso et al., 2020; Locke & Baum, 2007).

However, empirical evidence regarding the impact of collectivistic dimensions on EI remains mixed. Some studies suggest a positive effect of both conservation and self-transcendence on EI (Santos et al., 2021), while others indicate a negative direct effect but a potential indirect positive effect through subjective norms (Hueso et al., 2020). This dual effect may arise from the connection between collectivistic values and the motivation to comply with social expectations, suggesting that individuals with strong collectivistic values may follow the recommendations of influential others, even if these recommendations do not explicitly support entrepreneurial goals. Additionally, research on social and sustainable entrepreneurship suggests that self-transcendence may positively influence EI, particularly when entrepreneurial ventures align with community-oriented or sustainability goals (Yang et al., 2023; Yasir et al., 2021).

While most research has been conducted in urban or mixed urban-rural contexts, the rural context presents unique characteristics that influence entrepreneurial decisions. Rural areas, with their limited access to resources, infrastructure, and markets, pose significant challenges to entrepreneurship (Manzoor et al., 2021). However, they also offer advantages such as close community networks, local knowledge, and niche markets (Pato & Teixeira, 2016). In rural settings, the alignment of personal values with these contextual factors plays a crucial role in determining EI. For instance, collectivistic values like self-transcendence, which emphasize community well-being and cooperation, could foster a supportive environment for entrepreneurship, motivating individuals to create ventures that benefit the community (Carsrud & Brännback, 2011). Conversely, those who prioritize security and stability, core aspects of conservatism, might be less inclined to take the risks associated with starting a business in a rural context, where markets are smaller and riskier. In contrast, as in urban contexts, openness to change and self-enhancement are likely to be positively associated with EI.

H2: EI is positively related to openness to change (H2a), self-enhancement (H2b), and self-transcendence (H2c) and negatively related to conservatism (H2d).

In addition to theories of attitudes and personal values, social structures and socio-economic contexts are significant antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions. The socio-economic environment—including access to economic resources, job opportunities, and the political climate—plays a crucial role in shaping entrepreneurial intentions. Individuals do not make entrepreneurial decisions in isolation; rather, these decisions are embedded within a broader socio-economic context that can either hinder or foster entrepreneurial activity (Shane et al., 2003). For instance, challenging business environments can discourage individuals from pursuing entrepreneurship (Manzoor et al., 2021). Conversely, environments supportive of entrepreneurship, offering accessible resources and positive societal views, tend to encourage the development of entrepreneurial intentions (Greve & Salaff, 2003; Thu & Le Hieu, 2017).

Empirical studies also underscore the influence of family background on entrepreneurial intentions, particularly for individuals from business-owning families. Research shows that those from entrepreneurial families are more likely to develop positive intentions toward entrepreneurship, largely due to early exposure to business operations (Pablo Lerchundi et al., 2015). Many entrepreneurs have parents who were self-employed, indicating that family history significantly shapes entrepreneurial behavior (Fairlie & Robb, 2007). This influence is particularly pronounced in rural areas, where family businesses often provide the primary context for acquiring entrepreneurial skills and values (Alsos et al., 2011). Entrepreneurial parents frequently involve their children in the family business, imparting the necessary skills, values, and confidence for entrepreneurship (Cooper et al., 1994).

Similarly, entrepreneurial education plays a crucial role in fostering entrepreneurial intentions. Educational programs focused on entrepreneurship positively influence students' attitudes toward entrepreneurial activities by enhancing their knowledge, skills, and perceptions of entrepreneurship (Henderson & Robertson, 1999; Husna et al., 2024). Studies suggest that a supportive educational environment, particularly one offering access to resources like incubator organizations, significantly boosts entrepreneurial self-efficacy, leading to increased intentions for self-employment (Guo et al., 2022; Liñán & Fayolle, 2015). Universities providing entrepreneurship education contribute to higher entrepreneurial intentions by promoting a positive image of entrepreneurship and offering essential support structures, such as incubators, which are critical for developing entrepreneurial opportunities (Boldureanu et al., 2020; Passaro et al., 2018; Audretsch & Belitski, 2017).

H3: The existence of entrepreneurial family ties (H3a) and contact with incubator organizations (H3b) are positively related to the emergence of entrepreneurial intentions.

4

Empirical approach

4.1

Methodology, data, and variables

The empirical study is based on a survey conducted among 599¹ students at the Escuela Universitaria de Osuna, one of the few institutions providing access to higher education in a rural environment in Spain. Data collection was carried out anonymously via the internet to ensure data confidentiality, and the collection period was between May and September 2022.

As discussed in the literature review, this study focuses on analyzing the determinants of entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions among rural students. A linear regression model is employed to examine which variables are relevant to the proposed analysis, as shown in Eq. (1).

Where EIi represents the entrepreneurial intentions of the students; Xi​ represents the student's socio-demographic characteristics; Yi ​ includes social and personal factors; Zi​ takes into account the structure of personal values; Wi represents the student's entrepreneurial experience; and ɛi​ is the error term for each individual.

The data collection instrument² accounts for theoretical foundations to gather the necessary information to construct each of the variables under consideration. The instrument includes questions from the Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) (Jaén et al., 2013) and Schwartz's Portrait Value Questionnaire (PVQ) (Schwartz, 2008). The first questionnaire focuses on measuring entrepreneurial intentions and individual antecedents, while the second focuses on measuring the structure of personal values in terms of priorities. In addition, the instrument is supplemented with variables relevant to the rural university student environment, primarily related to their contact with entrepreneurship centers and family experience in entrepreneurship.

Students' entrepreneurial intentions are measured using a seven-item Likert scale, asking them to indicate their degree of intention regarding the statement: "I am determined to start a business in the future." Three socio-demographic characteristics are used for estimation: age, gender, and the student's Socio-Economic and Cultural Index (SECI). The SECI is constructed through confirmatory principal component analysis, following literature on the economics of education (De Witte & López-Torres, 2017). The index considers the educational level of the father and mother (from 1 = primary to 5 = university) and the socioeconomic group to which the family belongs (from 1 = low to 5 = high).

The variables related to social and personal factors, and the structure of personal values, are constructed following the literature in this research area (Jaén & Liñán, 2013; Liñán et al., 2016). The Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) is used to construct variables related to social and personal factors, while entrepreneurial attitudes are measured by two sets of six variables each. An approach based on Ajzen's (2002) definition is used to construct the variable measuring entrepreneurial attitudes. This approach considers two sets of data: the first set contains the outcomes of what starting a new business would entail, and the second set contains the acceptability or desirability of each outcome. The variable is constructed by identifying six items for these two sets: facing new challenges, creating jobs for others, being creative and innovative, having a high economic income, taking calculated risks, and being one's own boss (independence). For the first set, the likelihood of each outcome is measured on a seven-point scale ranging from very unlikely (0–1), moderately likely (2–4), to highly likely (5–6). The second set measures the desirability of these same items on a similar scale, from not at all desirable (0–1), moderately desirable (2–4), to very desirable (5–6). Each result from the first set is multiplied by its desirability in the second set, allowing for the construction of a comprehensive measure of entrepreneurial attitudes.

Subjective norms are measured by two sets of three variables each. The first set measures various normative beliefs, such as the approval of others for starting a business. The second set measures the willingness to meet these expectations. To construct this variable, students were asked: "To what extent would your closest family and friends agree with you if you decided to start and run your own business?" Seven levels of agreement were used: strongly disagree (0–1), moderately agree (2–4), and strongly agree (5–6), applied to groups such as immediate family, close friends, and colleagues. The importance of their opinion was also rated on a scale from 0 to 6.

The final variable, constructed based on the EIQ, is Perceived Behavioral Control, measured by six variables combining control, self-efficacy, and relationships. This follows previous research on EI (Krueger et al., 2000; Moriano et al., 2012). These variables are rated on a Likert scale from 0 to 6, where the perception of control is rated from completely ineffective (0–1), moderately ineffective (2–4), to completely effective (5–6)³.

The structure of personal values is measured using Schwartz's Portrait Value Questionnaire (PVQ) (Schwartz 2006, 2008). This questionnaire aims to measure different characteristics of personal values using six-point Likert scales (0–5). For this study, the focus is on the categories of Openness to Change (self-direction, stimulation), Self-Enhancement (achievement, power), Conservation (security, conformity, tradition), and Self-Transcendence (universalism, benevolence).

Finally, the last group of variables relates to students' entrepreneurial experience, accounting for whether the student had contact with an entrepreneurship center and whether a family member was involved in entrepreneurship. These factors are typical variables related to entrepreneurship (Langowitz & Minniti, 2007).

5

Descriptive analysis

This section provides an overview of the sample, followed by the descriptive statistics of the constructed variables.

The research includes 599 students from the University Center, with an average age of 20.7 years and a standard deviation of 3.9 years. The sample consists of 60 % female students. The three most common study programs among participants are Early Childhood Education (24.6 %), Primary Education (23.1 %), and Physical Therapy (17.6 %). In terms of socioeconomic status, 88 % of the students identified themselves as belonging to the low (2 %), lower-middle (16 %), or middle (70 %) categories.

All variables constructed⁴ from the EIQ and PVQ were subjected to preliminary processing, including confirmatory factor analyses, following the theoretical frameworks proposed in the field (Schwartz, 2006, 2008; Jaén & Liñán, 2013; Liñán et al., 2016), to assess the fit of these variables. Table 1 presents the eigenvalue of the first factor, the variance explained by this factor, and Cronbach's alpha for each construct. It also includes the internal consistency measures of the constructed variables. All variables exhibit a Cronbach's alpha greater than 0.60 and explain more than 60 % of the total variance.

Table 1.

Internal consistency measures of constructed variables.

Variables	Eigen Value	Variance proportion	Alpha Cronbach
Entrepreneurial intentions	3,4672	0,6935	0,8656
Sociodemographic characteristics
Socioeconomic and Cultural level
Personal and social factors (Theory of Planned Behavior variables)
Attitude to entrepreneurship	3,6196	0,6035	0,8675
Subjective norm	2,1873	0,7291	0,8078
Perceived behavioral control	4,4005	0,7401	0,9296
Personal value structure
Conservation
Open to change	1,5122	0,7561	0,6775
Self enhancement	1,4673	0,7337	0,6370
Self-transcendence

Table 2 presents the main descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and quartiles). It is important to note that all variables subjected to factor analysis are standardized, meaning they have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics of model variables.

Variables	Mean/proportion	SD	Median	Q1	Q3
Sociodemographic characteristics
Age	20,7929	3,9219	20	18	22
	Women	Men
Gender	60,43 %	39,57 %
Socioeconomic and Cultural level	1,75E-09	1,0008	−0,0543	−0,8308	0,8285
Personal and social factors (Theory of Planned Behavior variables)
Attitude to entrepreneurship	7,27E-10	1,0000	0,0037	−0,723	0,7812
Subjective norm	5,60E-09	1,0000	0,1477	−0,7263	0,7119
Perceived behavioral control	3,62E-09	1,0000	0,1089	−0,6672	0,6663
Personal value structure
Conservation	6,38E-10	1,0000	0,0901	−0,6713	0,7418
Open to change	1,26E-10	1,0000	0,0557	−0,6525	0,7439
Self enhancement	−3,51E-10	1,0000	−0,0107	−0,6498	0,6726
Self-transcendence	−1,90E-09	1,0000	0,1974	−0,5584	0,8004
Entrepreneurship experience
	No	Yes
Contact to entrepreneurial center	95,99 %	4,01 %
Family entrepreneur	43,74 %	56,26 %

The descriptive analysis provides an overview of the study sample, highlighting four key aspects relevant to the rural context. First, three out of five participants in the sample are women. Second, while all variables related to social and personal factors, as well as personal value structures, are standardized, it is noteworthy that subjective norms (SD = 0.1477) and self-transcendence (SD = 0.1974) exhibit the greatest variability among individuals. Additionally, only 4 % of the sample has had contact with an entrepreneurship center, and 56 % have a family member involved in entrepreneurship.

6

Results

Table 3 presents the results of the regression analysis, showing four models that incorporate the relevant sets of variables for the analysis. Model 1 considers the socio-demographic characteristics of the students. As expected, this model explains a low percentage of the variance (R² = 0.0125), with a significant and positive relationship only with age. Model 2 includes personal and social factors from the EIQ, in addition to the socio-demographic characteristics. Significant, strong, and positive relationships are found between attitudes toward entrepreneurship and perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intentions. Notably, the inclusion of this set of variables increases the R² to 0.3307. Model 3 adds variables related to personal values from the PVQ, which measure the students' value structure. This model highlights two key aspects: first, there is a strong and significant relationship with self-enhancement; second, there is a negative relationship with self-transcendence. The total variance explained by this model reaches an R² of 0.3797, indicating that personal values contribute significantly to explaining entrepreneurial intentions in the rural sector. Finally, Model 4 incorporates variables related to students' entrepreneurial experience. In this final model, having a family member involved in entrepreneurship significantly increases the likelihood of high entrepreneurial intentions, although contact with entrepreneurship centers shows no significant effect.

Table 3.

Linear regression models on entrepreneurial intention of students in rural area.

Variables	Model 1	SE	Model 2	SE	Model 3	SE	Model 4	SE
Sociodemographic characteristics
Age	0.0279**	0,0121	0.0215**	0,0098	0.0193**	0,0094	0.0183**	0,0094
Gender (Base: women)	0,0600	0,0830	0.1196	0,0679	0,0168	0,0666	0,0138	0,0661
Socioeconomic and Cultural level	−0,041	0,0424	−0,0328	0,0346	−0,017	0,0339	−0,0124	0,0341
Personal and social factors (Theory of Planned Behaviour variables)
Attitude to entrepreneurship			0.2069**	0,0622	0.2053**	0,0650	0.2005**	0,0645
Subjective norm			0,0381	0,0434	0,0234	0,0452	0,0229	0,0447
Perceived behavioural control			0.4197***	0,0523	0.3808***	0,0536	0.3770***	0,0532
Personal value structure
Conservation					−0.0874*	0,0447	−0.0891**	0,0447
Open to change					0.1071**	0,0500	0.0996**	0,0505
Self enhancement					0.1565***	0,0381	0.1514***	0,0381
Self trascendence					−0.1764**	0,0515	−0.1752**	0,0510
Sources of entrepreneurship
Contact to entrepreneurial center (Base: No)							0,0306	0,1743
Family entrepreneur (Base: No)							0.1625**	0,0714
Constant	−0.6049**	0,2536	−0.4963**	0,2079	−0.4084**	0,1986	−0.4788**	0,1980
R2	0,0125		0,3307		0,3797		0,3860
Obs	599		599		599		599
Prob>F	0,1044		0,0000		0,0000		0,0000
***	1 %
**	5 %
*	10 %

In all four models, attitudes toward entrepreneurship and perceived behavioral control are positively related to entrepreneurial intentions (EI), supporting H1a and H1c. In contrast, there is no significant effect of subjective norms, and thus H1b is not supported. The influence of subjective norms on entrepreneurial intentions has been widely debated in the literature, and the current study's finding of a non-significant relationship aligns with some prior research. For example, Liñán and Chen (2009) found that while subjective norms are often included in models predicting entrepreneurial intentions, their influence tends to be weaker compared to attitudes and perceived behavioral control. This suggests that in certain contexts, particularly in rural areas, the role of social influence may be less pronounced.

Regarding personal values, the results show that openness to change and self-enhancement are positively related to EI, while conservatism has a negative and significant effect. These findings support H2a, H2b, and H2d, respectively. However, the hypothesis that entrepreneurial intentions are positively related to self-transcendence (H2c) is not supported. Instead, self-transcendence shows a significant but negative relationship with entrepreneurial intentions. This unexpected result suggests a complex dynamic in which self-transcendence values may conflict with entrepreneurial goals, which often prioritize financial success and personal gain (Anshika & Singla, 2022). Hueso et al. (2020) also suggest that the influence of self-transcendence on EI may be indirect and mediated by factors like subjective norms or personal attitudes. Thus, the observed negative association may reflect a divergence between self-transcendence values and the egoistic nature of entrepreneurship, highlighting the need to consider contextual and motivational factors when analyzing this relationship.

Finally, entrepreneurial family ties are positively related to entrepreneurial intentions, while contact with incubator organizations has no significant effect. This supports H3a but not H3b. The non-significant result for incubator contact may be attributed to several factors. While incubators offer benefits, their impact on entrepreneurial intentions depends on variables such as the level of engagement, the quality of mentorship, and the alignment of programs with entrepreneurs' needs (Passaro et al., 2018). Additionally, the maturity of the local entrepreneurial ecosystem and existing support structures may influence the perceived benefits. The relationship between incubator contact and entrepreneurial intentions might also be mediated by factors such as prior experience or social networks (Boldureanu et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2022). Therefore, the lack of significance suggests that the role of incubators in fostering entrepreneurial intentions may be more complex than initially expected.

The results presented in Table 3 across all models are consistent, as none of the variables change in direction or significance when additional variables are introduced. Two other aspects are worth noting: First, age loses significance as more explanatory variables are added. This finding aligns with previous studies and suggests that entrepreneurial intentions among young people (aged 18–22) in rural areas are more influenced by personal, social, and experiential factors than by age alone. Second, at the institutional level, contact with entrepreneurial centers is not significant. This suggests a need for measures to promote stronger synergies between these centers and students in rural settings.

Finally, despite moderate levels of correlation between some variables, no multicollinearity issues are identified in the models, as the variance inflation factor shows maximum values of 2.6.⁵

7

Discussion

This study identifies key determinants of entrepreneurial intentions among young individuals in rural areas, specifically focusing on the Comarca Sierra Sur region in Andalusia, Spain. The research builds on the theories of planned behavior and personal values to explore how attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and individual values influence the entrepreneurial ambitions of university students in a rural context. Additionally, the role of socio-economic factors, such as family entrepreneurial background and contact with entrepreneurial centers, is examined to understand their impact on fostering entrepreneurial intentions.

The findings align with key elements of the theoretical framework, particularly the Theory of Planned Behavior and Schwartz's theory of basic human values. Regression analysis reveals that attitudes toward entrepreneurship and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors of entrepreneurial intentions, supporting hypotheses H1a and H1c. This is consistent with the Theory of Planned Behavior, which posits that positive attitudes and a strong sense of control are crucial for fostering entrepreneurial intentions (Ajzen, 1991, 2001, 2020). These findings corroborate previous research, which indicates that individuals who view entrepreneurship favorably and feel confident in their abilities are more likely to pursue entrepreneurial activities (Ajzen, 1991; Liñán et al., 2016).

In contrast, subjective norms did not significantly predict entrepreneurial intentions, refuting hypothesis H1b. This finding contrasts with earlier studies that emphasize the role of social pressures in influencing entrepreneurial behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Liñán et al., 2016). The lack of significance could be attributed to the unique social dynamics of rural areas, such as those in the Comarca Sierra Sur, where communities are more homogeneous, and social expectations may operate differently from urban environments. In urban settings, where social norms may be more diverse and conflicting, the pressure to conform might have a stronger impact on entrepreneurial intentions. However, in close-knit rural communities, where relationships tend to be more personal and cohesive, subjective norms may not play as significant a role.

Regarding personal values, the study demonstrates that openness to change and self-enhancement positively influence entrepreneurial intentions, supporting hypotheses H2a and H2b. These results align with Schwartz's theory of basic human values, which associates these individualistic values with entrepreneurial activities (Schwartz, 2006; Liñán et al., 2016). Openness to change encourages innovation and adaptability—traits crucial to entrepreneurship—while self-enhancement aligns with the desire for personal gain and achievement often associated with business creation.

However, the study found a negative relationship between self-transcendence and entrepreneurial intentions, refuting hypothesis H2c. This suggests that collectivistic values, which prioritize social welfare and altruism, may conflict with the individualistic nature of entrepreneurship. This result is consistent with previous research (Hueso et al., 2020), which suggests that the altruistic orientation of self-transcendence might be at odds with the risk-taking and personal profit motives central to entrepreneurship. While self-transcendence can promote behaviors beneficial to the community, it may not align well with the risk-taking and self-interest often required in entrepreneurial ventures.

Similarly, conservatism was found to negatively impact entrepreneurial intentions, supporting hypothesis H2d. Conservative values, which emphasize stability, tradition, and resistance to change, are often incompatible with the risk-taking and innovative nature of entrepreneurship (Hueso et al., 2020). These values prioritize security and maintaining the status quo, making it less likely that individuals holding such values would engage in the uncertain and disruptive process of starting a business.

These findings highlight the importance of personal values in shaping entrepreneurial intentions. Individualistic values, such as openness to change and self-enhancement, encourage entrepreneurial behavior, while collectivistic values like self-transcendence and conservatism may act as barriers. Understanding these value orientations is crucial for developing policies and support mechanisms aimed at fostering entrepreneurship, particularly in rural contexts.

Finally, the study also examined the role of socio-economic factors in shaping entrepreneurial intentions. The findings show that family entrepreneurial ties are positively related to entrepreneurial intentions, supporting hypothesis H3a. This emphasizes the importance of family background in influencing entrepreneurial behavior, particularly in rural areas where family businesses are a common source of entrepreneurial experience and knowledge (Alsos et al., 2011; Fairlie & Robb, 2007). Conversely, contact with incubator organizations was not significantly related to entrepreneurial intentions, refuting hypothesis H3b. This may suggest that the current structure and accessibility of incubator organizations in rural areas are insufficient to significantly impact students' entrepreneurial intentions. The lack of impact could also be due to limited awareness or engagement with these support structures, which may require further investigation.

8

Conclusions

This study, to our knowledge, is the first to identify the main determinants of entrepreneurial intentions in rural areas, providing meaningful contributions to the understanding of socio-economic development in these settings. Our results underscore the significance of attitudes toward entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and personal values in shaping entrepreneurial intentions. They also highlight the importance of tailoring entrepreneurship support mechanisms to the unique characteristics of rural contexts and fostering a supportive entrepreneurial culture within families and communities. Enhancing these aspects will be crucial for developing more effective strategies to promote entrepreneurship and drive socio-economic development in rural regions.

The findings have several implications for policymakers aiming to stimulate entrepreneurship in rural areas. First, initiatives to enhance entrepreneurial attitudes and perceived behavioral control should be prioritized. This can be achieved through targeted entrepreneurship education programs that build relevant skills and confidence among young individuals. Furthermore, the significant role of family entrepreneurial background suggests that fostering a culture of entrepreneurship within families and communities could have a substantial impact. Policies that support family businesses and provide platforms for sharing entrepreneurial experiences within communities could strengthen the entrepreneurial ecosystem in rural areas.

The lack of significance of subjective norms and contact with entrepreneurial centers indicates a need for better integration of these support structures with the local context. Policymakers should consider establishing more accessible and contextually relevant entrepreneurial support services that resonate with the specific needs and characteristics of rural populations.

While this study offers valuable insights into the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions, several limitations must be acknowledged, which future research should aim to address. First, although this study pioneers the analysis of entrepreneurial intentions in a rural area of Spain, the focus on a single rural context may limit the generalizability of the findings. Rural areas, even within the same country, can vary significantly in their socio-economic structures, cultural norms, and access to resources. Therefore, future research should broaden the scope to include multiple rural contexts, both within Spain and internationally, to better capture the diverse range of influences on entrepreneurial intentions across different rural settings.

Methodologically, the study's reliance on a cross-sectional design limits the ability to observe how entrepreneurial intentions evolve over time. Entrepreneurial behavior is a dynamic process, influenced by changing economic conditions, policy environments, and personal experiences. A cross-sectional snapshot may not fully capture these temporal dynamics. Future studies employing longitudinal designs would be better suited to explore the causal relationships between the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions and actual entrepreneurial behavior. Such an approach could provide deeper insights into how intentions form, change, and eventually lead to business creation or other entrepreneurial outcomes over time.

Moreover, the data collection was conducted within a specific timeframe, which might not reflect broader economic shifts or long-term trends that could influence entrepreneurial intentions. For example, economic downturns, policy changes, or shifts in cultural attitudes toward entrepreneurship could all have significant impacts that a cross-sectional study may not fully capture. Integrating longitudinal data or repeated cross-sectional surveys could help account for these fluctuations and provide a more nuanced understanding of the factors driving entrepreneurial intentions in rural areas. Such studies would enable researchers to analyze how entrepreneurial intentions evolve and translate into concrete entrepreneurial actions, offering valuable insights into the dynamic nature of entrepreneurial intentions and the factors that sustain or hinder entrepreneurial activities over time.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Jesús Heredia-Carroza: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization, Methodology. Carlos Chavarría-Ortiz: Writing – original draft, Resources, Project administration, Investigation, Conceptualization. Sebastián López-Estrada: Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – review & editing. Thomas Zacharewicz: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgments are extended to the Department of Economics and the Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences at Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Cali for their support in funding the development of this research.

The first author (J.H.C.) discloses receipt of financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The authors acknowledge financial support from Ayudas para la Recualificación del Sistema Universitario Español en su Modalidad Margarita Salas granted by the Spanish Ministry of Universities through Resolución de 29 de noviembre de 2021 de Universidad de Sevilla, financed by the European Union-NextGenerationEU. And, ERASMUS+ programme (STAFF MOBILITY FOR TRAINING -S.T.T.-